Alexandria, founded in 1749, has a fascinating history, and many of its historic buildings are still preserved today.

During its long history, Alexandria was a tobacco trading post, one of the ten busiest ports in America, a part of the District of Columbia, home to both the largest slave-trading firm in the country and a large free-black community, a Civil War supply center for Union troops, and a street-car suburb for Federal workers.

Alexandria was also the hometown of George Washington, Robert E. Lee, Jim Morrison and Mama Cass.

13,200 years ago to ca. 1675 CE

The shoreline of the Potomac River where Alexandria is located today has been a useful and popular spot for centuries, long before the modern community was founded. Exploring the Chesapeake Bay in 1608, John Smith sailed up the Potomac River and contacted many different people along both banks. When Smith neared this point, he met at least two groups that we now refer to as the Tauxenents and the Nacotchtanks, both part of a larger affiliation known as the Conoy chiefdom. These people made up just a small percentage of the thousands of Native Americans who inhabited the region and enjoyed its rich resources of fish and game. Familiar place names today persist as reminders of Native Americans in the area include Dogue, Pohick, Accotink and Occoquan. After Smith's visit, it would be many years before white settlement would expand into this part of tidewater Virginia. The types of artifacts discovered in Alexandria indicate that Native Americans visited the area beginning about 13,000 years ago, and historical documents suggest that they remained in the vicinity until about 1675.

Learn more about Indigenous Peoples, Virginia Indians, and Alexandria.

1669-1749

Much of present-day Alexandria was included in a 6,000-acre land grant from Sir William Berkeley, Governor of Virginia, which was awarded to Robert Howson, an English ship captain, on October 21, 1669. This land overlapped a 700-acre patent that had previously been issued to Dame Margaret Brent in 1654. The Howson tract extended along the Potomac River, from Hunting Creek on the south to the Little Falls on the north. The grant was made by authority of King Charles II in recognition of Captain Howson's bringing 120 people to live in Virginia. Less than a month later, Howson sold the land to John Alexander for 6,000 pounds of tobacco.

During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, plantations were established along both sides of the Potomac River and settlement began to spread further into northern Virginia. When Fredericksburg was founded in 1728, it was the northernmost town in Virginia but was still located in the tidewater, where tobacco production was profitable.

By 1732, Hugh West had established a tobacco warehouse on high bluffs overlooking a small but deep bay, at what is today the foot of Oronoco Street in Alexandria. Philip and John Alexander farmed much of the surrounding land and Hugh West oversaw the warehouse along with a ferry and tavern. When Fairfax County was established in 1742, many of the county's residents already lived several miles inland, away from the river and from commercial ties to the outside world. Many of them found that grains like wheat and corn could be raised more profitably than tobacco in this upland area, but they desperately needed a trading place where they could gather their crops for export and could buy manufactured merchandise from abroad. To facilitate shipping, Scottish and English merchants who owned real estate at Cameron, a small hamlet four miles west of the Potomac, petitioned the Virginia General Assembly in the fall of 1748 to establish a town at West's Hunting Creek Warehouse. In the spring of 1749, this site was selected and the new town was named Alexandria in honor of the early owner of much of the land, Scotsman John Alexander. John West, Fairfax County surveyor, laid-out 60 acres (by tradition, assisted by 17-year-old George Washington), and lots were auctioned off in July 1749.

Learn more about Alexandria's Early History: The Colonial and Federal Periods.

1749-1860

Alexandria thrived for the next few decades. During the mid-1750s, the town was a staging area for British troops involved in the French and Indian War. English General Braddock made his headquarters in Alexandria and occupied the Carlyle House while planning his campaign against the French in 1755. In 1763, another land sale was held greatly increasing the size of the community. Twenty years later, more new land was created by filling in part of the Potomac shoreline, allowing merchants to build wharves which reached ocean-going vessels in the river’s deep water channel. Lots all over town were subdivided repeatedly by their owners who rented space to dozens of different types of skilled artisans, grocers and small merchants, tavern keepers and other tradesmen. The population included many slaves as well as free blacks who lived primarily in neighborhoods called "the Bottoms" and "Hayti."

Incorporated in 1779, Alexandria became a port of entry for foreign vessels and a major export center for flour and hemp. By the end of the 18th century, Alexandria was among the ten busiest ports in America and had been designated an official port of entry, allowing foreign shipping to land and unload without registering somewhere else first. Its bustling harbor teemed with brigs, schooners, and ships of the line, which traversed the high seas and engaged in international and coastal trade. The streets were lined with substantial brick houses and the "sound of the hammer and trowel were at work everywhere." Alexandria's political, social, and commercial interests were of great importance to many local residents, especially to neighboring George Washington in Mount Vernon. Washington maintained a town house here and served as a Trustee of Alexandria. Washington also purchased a pew in Christ Church, served as Worshipful Master of Alexandria Masonic Lodge No. 22, and shipped his wheat and fish through Alexandria merchants.

In 1789, Alexandria and a portion of Fairfax County were ceded by the State of Virginia to become a part of the new 10-mile square District of Columbia. Formally accepted by Congress in 1801, Alexandria remained under the aegis of the new federal government until it was retroceded to Virginia in 1847. In 1796, a visitor, the Duc de La Rochfoucauld Liancourt, commented that, "Alexandria is beyond all comparison the handsomest town in Virginia--indeed is among the finest in the United States."

"Light Horse Harry" Lee, a Revolutionary War general, and the father of Robert E. Lee, brought his family to Alexandria in 1810. Robert lived here until his departure for West Point in June. 1825.

Despite increasing competition from Baltimore, which gradually replaced Alexandria as the main shipping point for the upper Chesapeake region, the town remained a bustling center for the export of grain and bread products, fish, a variety of small manufactures and rail transportation.

Alexandria also was a center of the slave trade during the early nineteenth century, from which thousands of blacks were transported to Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi and other areas in the deep-South where cotton production demanded more and more labor. New gas and water works and many new homes were constructed in town during this period and Alexandria's population almost doubled in the decade before 1860.

1861-1865

Within days of Virginia's secession from the Union in the spring of 1861, Federal troops arrived in Alexandria to take possession of the city. Union military forces arrived on May 24, 1861, and Alexandria became a logistical supply center for the federal army. Troops and supplies were transported to Alexandria via the port and the railroad and then dispersed where needed at the front. Wounded soldiers, brought back on the trains, crowded the available hospitals and temporary medical facilities in and around the town. Many of the largest buildings in town, including The Lyceum, were confiscated for use as hospitals and for other official purposes and many new warehouses were constructed along the waterfront. It was during this era that several forts were constructed in Alexandria as a part of the defenses of the City of Washington. Fort Ward Museum & Historic Site contains one of these restored forts. From 1863 to 1865, the City was the capital of the Restored Government of Virginia, which represented the seven Virginia counties remaining under federal control during the Civil War. By the end of the Civil War, Alexandria's economy was in shambles but the city itself had been spared the destruction witnessed by many other places in Virginia such as Richmond and Fredericksburg.

Although Alexandria was a major slave-trading center prior to the Civil War, it also had a history of several free black communities. African-American life flourished with the establishment of churches, social and fraternal organizations, and businesses. Many early Alexandria African-Americans were skilled artisans. During the Civil War, African American refugees flooded into Union-controlled areas, including Alexandria and Washington. Although many of the freedmen found work and some served in the Union army, others arrived destitute, malnourished, and in poor health. After hundreds of freed people perished in the area, a parcel of undeveloped land was seized from a pro-Confederate owner for use as a cemetery. This cemetery is now the Contrabands and Freedmen Cemetery Memorial, open to the public. 

Learn more about Alexandria during the Civil War.

The 20th and 21st Centuries

The 20th century saw the creation of new neighborhoods as Alexandria expanded to the west, the advent of historic preservation and urban renewal, two World Wars, the Civil Rights movement and designation of the Parker-Gray District, and the arrival of new immigrant communities.

Alexandria's History: The 20th and 21st Century

Alexandria History: A Timeline

The Alexandria Chronicle
The Alexandria Chronicle has been published by the Alexandria Historical Society since 1993. Issues from 2006 to present are available on the Society’s website. Paper copies of earlier issues of the Chronicle, and of the Alexandria History magazine (1978-2002), can be found at the Alexandria Library, Local History/Special Collections.

Discovering the Decades
Created in honor of the City's 25Oth Birthday in 1999, Discovering the Decades places Alexandria's history in a wider perspective.

Historic Alexandria Maps
View historic maps from 1624 to 1862

Historic Alexandria Quarterly
Historic Alexandria Quarterly is a scholarly publication produced by the Office of Historic Alexandria from 1996 to 2004. All volumes are available online.

Historic Alexandria’s YouTube Channel
Watch lectures and videos about many aspects of Alexandria's history.

Historic Sites on the National Register of Historic Places
Over 40 Alexandria districts, sites, buildings and structures are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the United States of America's official list of historic properties worthy of preservation.

Museum Collections
View online collections and learn more about the collections of each Historic Alexandria museum. 

Out of the Attic 
This column is published each week in the Alexandria Times newspaper. Sort the Out of Attic Archive by street address or property name, or search for people or topics of special interest.

Self-Guided Tours
Explore Alexandria’s history by foot, bike, or car, and find historic sites through wayfinding signage.

This Day in History 
What happened in Alexandria on today's date, or tomorrow, or on your birthday? These daily events in Alexandria's history were first printed in "This Week in Historic Alexandria." Now you can find out what happened on particular days of the year.

Travelers’ Accounts of the Alexandria Waterfront
These first person accounts are organized by decade.

Indigenous Peoples, Virginia Indians, and Alexandria
For thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans and the founding of Alexandria in 1749, Indians seasonally lived in and traveled through the lands that would become the City of Alexandria.

Archaeology and Alexandria's First People
Human occupation of Alexandria began thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. Despite the past 250 years of construction and development, remnants of this Native American past still remain buried within the City. To date, archaeologists have identified more than 30 sites containing Indian artifacts and features and have registered them with the Virginia Department of Historic Resources.

Archaeological Site Reports
Selected listings from the Alexandria Archaeology Bibliography.

• Adams, Robert M. Preliminary Archaeological Investigation of the Stonegate Development (Parcel C) West Braddock Road, City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming, 1996.
• Adams, Robert M. The Archaeological Investigation of the Undeveloped Upland Terraces in Mark Center, City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming, 1994. Public Summary 
• Adams, Robert M. The Archaeological Investigations of Two Storm Drain Corridors at the Stonegate Development, Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming, 1993.
• Adams, Robert M. [et al.] Archaeological Investigations of the Stonegate Development (Including Sites 44AX31, AX166 and 167), City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming, 1993. Appendices A-C. Appendices D-M. Public Summary 

• Blondino, Joseph R., Kevin McCloskey and Katherine Watts, Phase I Archaeological Survey of the Strawberry Run Project Area and Phase II Evaluation of Site 44AX0240, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Dovetail Cultural Resource Group, Fredericksburg, VA, 2020. Public Summary

• Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, and Tammy Bryant. Phase III Data Recovery Excavations of the Prehistoric Component of 44AX177 and 44AX176, Stonegate Development, Parcel C, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 1995.  Public Summary  
• Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, Tammy Bryant and Gwen J. Hurst. Phase II, Archeological Investigations of an Historic Area Within 44AX177, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 1995.
• Ferland, Sara C., Mike Klein and Emily A. Lindtveit. Cultural Resources Investigations of the 4-acre Mark Center VI Parcel (Area A) and One Acre o the 6-Acre Mark Center Buildings 2A, 2B and 3 Parcel (Area B) within the Mark Center Complex on Seminary Road in the City of Alexandria, Virginia. Cultural Resources, Inc., Fredericksburg, Virginia, 2009. Public Summary 
• Koski-Karrell, Daniel.Background Study and Archaeological Evaluation for the First Addition to Colonial Park Development Project at the Mount Ida House, 2404 Russell Road, Alexandria, Virginia. Karell Archaeological Services, Arlington, Virginia, 1993.
• Koziarski, Ralph, Peter Regan and Scott Seibel, Virginia American Water 12-inch Water Line, Phase I Archaeological Investigation and Archaeological Monitoring, St. Mary's Cemetery and Freedmen's Cemetery, Alexandria, Virginia. AECOM, Germantown, MD., 2017. Public Summary

• Pappas, Madeleine, Janice G. Artemel and Elizabeth A. Crowell. Alexandria Federal Courthouse Phase I Historical Archaeological Investigation, Alexandria, Virginia.  Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1991.  Public Summary 

• Parson, Kimberly and Caleb Christopher. Phase II Archaeological Investigation of Sites 44AX127 and 44AX128, Witter Street Recreation Complex, Alexandria, Virginia.  URS Corporation, Florence, New Jersey, 2004.
• Petraglia, Michael D., Catharine B. Toulmin and Madeleine Pappas. An Archaeological Survey at the Alexandria Business Center, Alexandria, Virginia. Engineering-Science, Washington, D.C., 1993. Public Summary  
• Pfanstiehl, Cynthia, Elizabeth A. Crowell, Eugene Goodman, Donald Hull, Edith Baird and Ray Wood. Winkler Tract Phase I and II Archaeological Investigations. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1988.
• Sipe, Boyd, with Francine W. Bromberg, Steven Shephard, Pamela J. Cressey, and Eric Larsen. The Contrabands and Freedmen Cemetery Memorial, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Archaeological Data Recovery at Site 44AX0179. Thunderbird Archaeology, a division of Wetland Studies, Gainesville, VA and Alexandria Archaeology, Office of Historic Alexandria, 2014. (Contact Alexandria Archaeology Museum to view report.)
• Walker, Mark K., Madeleine Pappas, John Bedell, Janice Artemel and Heidy Fogel. Archaeological Investigations at the Alexandria Federal Courthouse Site (44AX164), Alexandria, Virginia. Engineering Science, Chartered, 1993. Public Summary  
• Ziegler, Danica L. and Thomas W. Bodor. Archeological and Historical Investigations at the Bryan Property, 2826 King Street, Alexandria, Virginia.  Greenhorne & O'Mara, Inc., Fairfax, Virginia, 1998.

Alexandria's Early History: The Colonial and Federal Periods
Learn about Alexandria from its earliest colonial settlers until the 1820s.

Alexandria's Potters
These articles were written by retired Alexandria archaeologist Barbara H. Magid and published in Ceramics in America, a publication of the Chipstone Foundation.

• A New Look at Old Stoneware: The Pottery of Tildon Easton, 2004.
• In the Philadelphia Style: The Pottery of Henry Piercy, with Bernard K. Means, 2003.
• Robert H. Miller, Importer: Alexandria and St. Louis, 2008.
• Sugar Refining Pottery from Alexandria and Baltimore, 2005.
• "Stone-ware of excellent quality, Alexandria manufacture" Part I: The Pottery of John Swann, 2012.
• "Stone-ware of excellent quality, Alexandria manufacture" Part II: The Pottery of Benedict C. Milburn, 2013.

More Ceramics

• Commemorative Wares in George Washington's Hometown, 2006.

The Alexandria Chronicle

• Hugh West and the West Family's Momentous Role in Founding and Developing Alexandria and Fairfax and Loudoun Counties, Virginia  by Jim Bish, The Alexandria Chronicle, Spring 2010
• Alexandria and Belhaven: A Case of Dual Identity by Diane Riker, The Alexandria Chronicle, Summer 2009
• A British Fleet Sails into Alexandria by Ted Pulliam, The Alexandria Chronicle, Spring 2009
• A Tale of Two Continents: How Fortune and Ability Affected Two Brothers: Doctor George Carlyle of Cumberland County, England, and John Carlyle of Alexandria, Virginia by Jim Bartlinski, The Alexandria Chronicle, Spring 2008
• Gunpowder, Flour, Fire and Heirs: A Waterfront Block from Duke to Wolfe Streets by Ted Pulliam, The Alexandria Chronicle, Fall 2007
• The Fitzgerald Warehouse: The Early History of an Alexandria Landmark by Diane Riker, The Alexandria Chronicle, Summer 2007
• Reaching for the Channel: Some Documentary and Archaeological Evidence of Extending Alexandria's Waterfront by Steven J. Shephard, The Alexandria Chronicle, Spring 2006
• Isaac Todd's 1804 Alexandria Profiles by Mona Leithiser Dearborn, The Alexandria Chronicle, Spring 1994
• Alexandria, Virginia's Market Square  by Penny C. Morrill, The Alexandria Chronicle, Spring 1993
• From Alexandria to Albany: The Journal of Mrs. Charlotte Brown, 1754-1757 by Ethelyn Cox, Alexandria History Magazine, 1980
• Gen. Edward Braddock: A Retrospective by Ethelyn Cox, Alexandria History Magazine, 1980. 
• The Alexandria Market Square by Jamees D. Munson, Alexandria History Magazine, 1980.
• The "Precarious Trade" of a Virginia Tobacco Merchant: Harry Piper of Alexandria, 1749-1776 by Thomas M. Preissir,   Alexandria History Magazine, 1978 

The Historic Alexandria Quarterly 

• Loyalism in Eighteenth Century Alexandria, Virginia , by Marshall Stopher Kiker, Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Winter 2001
• Commercial Credit in Eighteenth Century Alexandria: Default and Business Failure , by H. Talmage Day and Barbara Morgan, Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Winter 2000
• The Development of Early Taverns in Alexandria , by James C. Mackay, III, Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Fall 2000
• Inventories from Alexandria: What Personal Objects Reveal About our Historic Buildings and Their Owners, by William Seale, Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Spring 2000
• Viewing Alexandria from the Perspective of Gunston Hall: George Mason's Associations with the Colonial Port Town , by Andrew S. Veech, Ph.D., Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Winter 1999

Waterfront History

• Archaeology on the Waterfront. As redevelopment takes place along Alexandria's waterfront, archaeologists are exploring the properties undergoing development. Excavations took place in 2015-2016 at the Hotel Indigo Site at 220 S. Union Street and in 2017-2018 at Robinson Terminal South, at 2 Duke Street. Learn about the ships, warehouses and other discoveries.
• Travelers Accounts of the Historic Alexandria Waterfront
• Howson & Brent, by Ted Pulliam. It was probably the biggest real estate deal in the history of Northern Virginia. It took place in 1669 and included all the land on which Arlington Cemetery, the Pentagon, Reagan National Airport, and Old Town Alexandria now are located.
• Alexandria and Belhaven, by Diane Riker. For the first dozen years of its history, Alexandria, Virginia, was a town with two names. Which came first: Alexandria or Belhaven? This paper attempts to disentangle fact from fantasy.
• Chadwicks on the Strand, by Diane Riker. From a sandy bank to a restaurant: the development of the Lawrason and Fowle warehouses on the Strand.
• Alexandria’s First Wharf, by Ted Pulliam. In 1749, Alexandria was situated on high bluffs that formed a crescent-shaped bay with two points of land at each end of town extending out into the bay. This paper examines the first wharf, its location, date, and builder.
• Fitzgerald Warehouse, by Diane Riker. At the corner of King and Union streets in Alexandria stands the earliest waterfront structure the city retains from its heady days as an international port. Seen today from across King Street, the brick and stone warehouse, built for Col. John Fitzgerald in the mid-1790s, appears to tilt toward the river. And the river is where its story begins. This paper is updated and enlarged from Ms. Riker’s, “The Fitzgerald Warehouse: The Early History of an Alexandria Landmark,” published by the Alexandria Historical Society in The Alexandria Chronicle, Summer 2007.
• The Warehouses of Lower King Street, by Diane Riker. In 1749, when the first town lots went on sale, the present 100 block was well east of dry land. But investors realized the potential. This paper examines early owners and development.

Archaeological Site Reports
Selected listings from the Alexandria Archaeology Bibliography.

• Adams, Robert M.  The Archaeological Investigation of the Former Preston Plantation and Alexandria Canal at Potomac Yard . Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Hayes, Virginia, 1996. The former location of the Alexander family’s Preston plantation and cemetery, dating to the early 1700s.

• Artemel, Janice G. Elizabeth Crowell, Donald A. Hull and Dennis Knepper  -  A Phase IIA Archaeological Study, Old Ford Plant Site, Alexandria, Virginia.   Appendices. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1988. Testing uncovered large buried timbers associated with the 18th-century wharf.

• Engineering Science, Inc.  Maritime Archaeology at Keith's Wharf and Battery Cove (44AX119): Ford's Landing, Alexandria, Virginia Chapters I-VI  -  Chapters VII-X  -  Appendices, Washington, D.C., 1993. This report includes extensive research on wharf construction.

• Foss, Robert M. Excavations at Gadsby's Tavern, Alexandria, Virginia, 1974. The courtyard showed evidence 18th-century outbuildings.

• Hurst, Gwen J.  Archival Investigations of 101 Wales Alley, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 2000. This was the site of a wharf adjacent to Fitzgerald’s Warehouse.

• John Milner Associates. The Historic Structure Report for Christ Church, Alexandria, Virginia. West Chester, Pennsylvania, 1979. This Historic Structure Report of the “Church of Alexandria,” built in 1773 and attended by George Washington.

• Knepper, Dennis A. and Kimberly Prothro. Historical and Archaeological Investigation of Roberdeau's Wharf at Harborside, Alexandria, Virginia . Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C. 1989. Wharf and rum distillery owned by Daniel Roberdeau. By 1791, the old distillery served as a warehouse and sail loft.

• Morton, Brown W. III. A Report on the Structural Condition and State of Deterioration of the Stabler-Leadbeater Apothecary Shop Museum, 105-107 South Fairfax Street, Alexandria, Virginia, 1984. Among the oldest preserved apothecaries in the United States and the only apothecary in Virginia to operate continuously from the 18th–20th century (1796–1933).

• Schweigert, Kurt P. West End. Prepared for Norfolk Southern Corporation (Carlyle Project), 1998. West End Village was a small community on Duke Street.

• Tolson, Sarah. Carlyle House Archaeology Project Final Report, Draft 2. Manuscript. Carlyle House, Alexandria, Virginia, 1980. This report detailed the 1753 house’s construction and design influences and a history of the property Results of the archaeological investigation included such features as well shafts and privies with artifacts dating from the time of John Carlyle.

• Williams, Martha R. Phase I and II Archeological Investigations at Cameron Farm (44AX182) and Cameron Mills (44AX112), Hoffman Properties, Alexandria, Virginia. R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, 2005. Appendices. There were two adjoining mills by 1798. Excavated were foundations of both mill buildings, portions of a mill race, and a small pier on the old shoreline of Hunting Creek.

• Williams, Martha R. Data Recovery at the West Family Cemetery (44AX183) Block 2, Hoffman Properties, Alexandria, Virginia .  Appendices . R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, 2004.  Public Summary  Archaeologists found the West family burial vault, seven associated burials, and seven graves outside the vault. Osteological studies tentatively identified the remains of four individuals in the vault as Hugh West’s wife, Sybil, and their children.

Alexandria During the Civil War
Explore how the Civil War and occupation of Alexandria by Union troops during those four years deeply changed the City. 

From the Carlyle House Historic Park

• The Occupation of Alexandria, VA during the Civil War. On May 23, 1861, Virginia voted to become the eighth state to secede from the Union. James Green (the son of the James Green who built the hotel in front of Carlyle House), who was living at the Carlyle House at the time, described the event in his diary as "the most quiet election I ever saw in town."  (Carlyle House Docent Dispatch, May 2011)
• Nurses, Spies and Soldiers: The Civil War at Carlyle House. The Mansion House Hospital, which incorporated the 1753 home of John Carlyle and the large building in front of it, was a place of strife and suffering during the Civil War. (Carlyle House Docent Dispatch, March 2011) 
   

From the Friends of Freedmen's Cemetery

• Slaves in the Alexandria Jail, 1861. National Republican of January 20, 1862
• Convalescent Soldiers in L'Ouverture Hospital "Express Our Views" on Burial Location.  
• Brief History of Alexandria's Freed People and of Freedmen's Cemetery 
• The Contraband Hospital and Alexandria's Freedmen's Aid Workers 
• Record of Deaths and Burials Among the Freedmen in Alexandria, Virginia ("The Gladwin Record") 
   

From the National Trust for Historic Preservation

• The Contraband of America and the Road to Freedom. This video, narrated by staff of the Alexandria Black History Museum, tells the story of Contrabands in Alexandria, and features Shiloh Baptist Church and the Freedmen's Cemetery.

From the Alexandria Historical Society

Articles from The Alexandria Chronicle and the earlier Alexandria History Magazine.

• The First Union Civil War Martyr: Elmer Ellsworth, Alexandria, and the American Flag, by Marc Leepson, Fall 2011 
• The Civil War Comes to Duke Street, by Ted Pulliam, Fall 2011 (see page 5) 
• "This Long Agony": A Test of Civilian Loyaties in an Occupied City, by Diane Riker, Spring #2 2011 
• Volusia: A Farm and the People Who Lived There During the Civil War, by Amy Bertch, Spring #1 2011 
• "Hessians in our midst:" Provost Duty in Alexandria 1861-62, the 88th Pennsylvania Volunteers, by Michael Ayoub, Fall 2008 
• "Aunt Lindy" - A Former Slave Who Settled in Alexandria after the Civil War, by T. Michael Miller, Summer/Fall 2002 (see page 4) 
• Mary Custis Lee--17th Virginia Regiment Chapter, UDC, Honors the Six Soldiers Buried in Its Confederate Plot at Bethel Cemetery in Alexandria , by Rebecca Hatchell Kusserow, Spring 2002 (see page 11) 
• Kate Hooper: Alexandria's "Angel of Mercy" , by T. Michael Miller, Spring 2002 (see page 19)
• Edgar Warfield-Alexandria's Last Surviving Confederate Soldier, by T. Michael Miller, Spring 2001 
• A Heroine on the Homefront: My Mother's Experience during the Civil War, by Ada Warfield Kurtz, 1907. Spring 2001 (see page 16) 
• A View of Mr. Lincoln, by T. Michael Miller, Spring 2001 (see page 16) 
• The Washington and Prince Street Military Prisons-Alexandria's Andersonville?, by T. Michael Miller, Winter 1999/2000 
• The Anthony Burns Affair: Alexandria, Virginia Locals at the Center of National Debate over the Fugitive Slave Act during Violent Incidents in Boston, Massachusetts, by Cliff Johns, Fall 1999 
• Vignettes from the Pages of the Alexandria Gazette: A Lone Indian. Alexandrians Used as Human Hostages on U.S. Military Railroad Trains. Negro Regiment Raised in Alexandria, Fall 1999 (see page 18) 
• Alexandria and Northern Virginia in the Early National Period: The Paradox of Liberalism in a Slave Society, by A. Glenn Crothers, Summer 1999 
• Civil War Vignettes,  compiled by T. Michael Miller, Summer 1999 (see page 18) 
• President Abraham Lincoln Reviews the Troops Near Shuter's Hill, by T. Michael Miller, Summer 1999 (see page 26) 
• Recollections of the Early War between the States in Alexandria, Virginia,by A. J. Wickliffe, 1880, Spring 1997 
• "Bandages and Broken Bones:" The Civil War Diary of Anne Reading, Introduction by Margaret Garrett Irving, Summer 1995 
• United States Civil War Military Hospitals in Occupied Alexandria, Virginia, Summer 1995 (see page 21) 
• President Lincoln's Railroad Car, by Robert Slusser, Spring 1995 

Alexandria History Magazine 

• A Chronicle of the 17th Virginia Regiment-The Reminiscences of Col. Arthur Herbert, by T. Michael Miller, 1984
• Beleaguered Alexandria, 1861-1865, by James G. Barber, 1981 
• "The Town Is Took:" McClellen's Troops on Seminary Hill by Cazenove G. Lee, 1981 (see page 11)  
• Cazenove Lee Remembers Robert E. Lee, 1981 (see page 19) 
   

Selected listings from the Alexandria Archaeology Bibliography.

• Battery Heights, 44AX186: Fiedel, Stuart J. and Bryan Corle,  Results of Archeological Survey Battery Heights, Alexandria. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 2001.
• Bontz Site/West End Village, United States Military Railroad Complex, 44AX103 and 105 (1989 Phase II investigation):  Cromwell, T. Ted,  A Phase II Cultural Resource Evaluation of Duke Street (Route 236), Between the 1100 and 1900 Blocks, in the City of Alexandria, Virginia. James Madison University, Archæological Research Center, Harrisonburg, Virginia, 1989.       
• Bontz Site/West End Village, Spring Garden Farms/United States Military Railroad Complex, 44AX103 and 105 (1989 Phase III investigation):  Cromwell, T. Ted and Timothy J. Hills, The Phase III Mitigation of the Bontz Site (44AX103) and the United States Military Railroad Station (44AX105) located on the South Side of Duke Street (Route 236) in the City of Alexandria, Virginia. James Madison University Archaeological Research Center, Harrisonburg, Virginia, 1989.  Appendices,  Public Summary.
• Bush Hill, 44AX111:  Gardner, William M. and Gwen Hurst, A Phase IA Background and Documentary Study of Three Properties at 2201 Eisenhower Avenue and 2310 and 2318 Mill Road, Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 2002.
• Bush Hill, 44AX111:  Gardner, William M. and Gwen Hurst,  Phase IA Documentary Study of 10.67 Acres at 4840 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 1999.
• Custom Homes:  Walters, Patrick and Michael Clem,  A Phase I Archaeological Survey of 12 Lots on Taft Avenue and Donelson Street and Adjacent Stream Restoration Area, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Cultural Resources, Inc., Frederick, MD, 2008.  Public Summary.
• Episcopal High School Faculty Housing, 44AX200:  Balicki, Joseph, Kerri Holland, Bryan Corle, Archaeological Evaluation and Resource Management Plan for Episcopal High School Faculty Housing, 1200 Quaker Lane, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 2006.  Public Summary 
• Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company (2007 investigation):  Bryant, Tammy, Documentary Study of the 1300 Block of Duke Street, Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archaeology, Gainesville, Virginia, 2007.  Public Summary.
• Fort Ward, 44AX90:  Larrabee, Edward McM.,  Fort Ward, Alexandria, Virginia: Exploratory Excavation of the Northwest Bastion, 1961.
• Franklin and Armfield Slave Pen/Alexandria Hospital, 44AX75:  Artemel, Janice G., Elizabeth A. Crowell and Jeff Parker,  The Alexandria Slave Pen: The Archaeology of Urban Captivity. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1987.
• 1400 Janney's Lane, 44AX191:  Jirikowic, Christine, Gwen J. Hurst and Tammy Bryant,  Phase I Archeological Investigation at 1400 Janney's Lane, Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 2004.  Public Summary 
• Keith's Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford's Landing/"Old Ford Plant," 44AX119:  Artemel, Janice G. Elizabeth Crowell, Donald A. Hull and Dennis Knepper,  A Phase IIA Archaeological Study, Old Ford Plant Site, Alexandria, Virginia.  Appendices. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1988.
• Keith's Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford's Landing/"Old Ford Plant," 44AX119:  Cheek, Charles D. and Cecile G. Glendening,  A Phase I Archaeological Survey of the Old Ford Plant Property, City of Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 1986.
• Keith's Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford's Landing/"Old Ford Plant," 44AX119:  Engineering-Science, Inc., 1993  Maritime Archaeology at Keith's Wharf and Battery Cove (44AX119): Ford's Landing, Alexandria, Virginia Chapters I-VI,  Chapters VII-X,  Appendices Washington, D.C., 1993.
• L'Ouverture Hospital/Shiloh Baptist Church:  Traum, Sarah, Joseph Balicki and Brian Corle,  A Documentary Study, Archeological Evaluation and Resource Management Plan for 1323 Duke Street, Alexandria, Virginia, 2007. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, VA.  Public Summary.
• 1226 North Pegram Street, 44AX198:  Balicki, Joseph, Kerri Holland, Bryan Corle and Lynn B. Jones,  Documentary Study and Archaeological Investigation, 1226 North Pegram Street and Polk Avenue (44AX198), Alexandria, Virginia, John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 2008.
• Potomac Yard:  Walker, Mark K. and Marilyn Harper,  Potomac Yard Inventory of Cultural Resources. Engineering Science, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1989.
• Potomac Yard/Potomac Yard Center:  Adams, Robert M., Report on R, F & P Potomac Yard – Track Relocation Project. International Archaeological Consultants, Hayes, Virginia.
• Potomac Yard/Townes at Slater's Village:  Cheek, Charles D. and Dana B. Heck,  Archeological Observations at the Townes at Slater's Village Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 1996.
• 206 North Quaker Lane, 44AX193:  Jirikowic, Christine, Gwen J. Hurst and Tammy Bryant, Phase III Archeological Investigations at 206 North Quaker Lane, Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia. Public Summary.
• Quaker Ridge, 44AX195:  Balicki, Joseph, Bryan Corle, Charles Goode and Lynn Jones,  Archaeological Investigations for Quaker Ridge Housing (44AX195), Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 2005.  Public Summary.
• Spring Garden/Old Town Village (1999 investigation):  Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, Gwen Hurst, Joan M. Walker and John P. Mullen,  Excavations at the Old Town Village Site, Corner of Duke and Henry Streets, Alexandria, Virginia: An Historic and Archeological Trek Through the 200 Year History of the Original Spring Garden Development, Volume I, and  Volume II (Artifact Inventory). Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia, 1999.
• Spring Garden/Southern Plaza/Old Town Village (1988 investigation):Seifert, Donna J., Ph.D., Cecile G. Glendening and Walton Owen,  An Archæological Assessment of the Southern Plaza Project Area, Alexandria, Virginia, John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 1988.
• Stonegate Parcel C (1996 investigation):  Adams, Robert M.,  Preliminary Archaeological Investigation of the Stonegate Development (Parcel C) West Braddock Road, City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming, 1996.
• Virginia Theological Seminary Faculty Housing, 44AX173a:  Embrey, James W., Lynn D. Jones and Joseph Balicki,  Documentary Study, Archaeological Evaluation and Resource Management Plan for Virginia Theological Seminary Faculty Housing, Alexandria, Virginia, John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, 2005.  Public Summary -  Artifact Inventory 
• Weicking Property:  Straka, Jeffrey and Michael Clem,  Phase I Archaeological Survey and Monitoring of the Weicking Property, Lots 701, 702, 704, and 705 Arell Court, Alexandria, Virginia, KCI Technologies, Inc., Mechanicsburg, PA, 2006.  Public Summary  

Alexandria's History: The 20th and 21st Century
The 20th century saw the creation of new neighborhoods as Alexandria expanded to the west, the advent of historic preservation and urban renewal, two World Wars, the Civil Rights movement and designation of the Parker-Gray District, and the arrival of new immigrant communities.

Guidebooks, Reports and City Directories

• 1907:    Souvenir Virginia Tercentennial 1607-1907 of Historic Alexandria, Virginia (1907). Souvenir Virginia Tercentennial 1607-1907 of Historic Alexandria, Virginia, by Andrew J. Wedderburn (Alexandria, 1907). An illustrated guide to Alexandria buildings and neighborhoods. This book was created as a promotional piece with the support of Alexandria's then-new Chamber of Commerce, founded the same year, and attempted to tie into the statewide excitement surrounding the 300th anniversary of Jamestown.  Today, it serves as a useful snapshot of the community, showing Alexandria as a busy city of small industries, shops, and regional commerce, even though its once famous port had long since declined.
• 1923:    The Romance of Historic Alexandria. A Thrilling Narrative of Events founded on Facts and Fiction (1923): by Jackson Eugene Beauharnais. An early guidebook to Alexandria, available at the Alexandria Library, Local Special Collections. 
• 1947:    Historic Homes and Landmarks. Illustrated booklet by Mary Lindsay
• 1949:    200 Years of Progress. A booklet created for Alexandria's Bicentennial in 1949. 
• 1956:    City of Alexandria Annual Report.
• 1960:    City of Alexandria, Virginia. Hometown of George Washington and Robert E. Lee. Illustrated report published by the City of Alexandria.
• 1963:    City of Alexandria Master Plan. Prepared by Department of Planning and Urban Renewal.
• 1970:    Know Your City. A Study of City Government. Prepared by the League of Women Voters.

Oral Histories and Other Reminiscences

• Alexandria Legacies: The Alexandria Oral History Program Read transcriptions of more than 150 interviews conducted with long-time City residents by the Alexandria Legacies Project.
• A Nostalgic Account of Growing up in Old Town in the 1950's, by Stephen Williams, M.D. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Fall 2002.
• A Decade that Shaped My Life, by A. James Rudin, D.D., The Alexandria Chronicle, Fall 2015.
• The Five Payne Brothers  An Alexandria Family and Their Service, an online exhibit produced by The Lyceum, tells the story of the Payne Brothers, their life in Alexandria, and their service during World War II.
   

The African American Community

• McCargo Bah, Char, Christa Watters, Audrey P. Davis, Gwendolyn Brown-Henderson and James E. Henson, Sr.  African Americans of Alexandria Virginia: Beacons of Light in the Twentieth Century . The History Press, 2013. (Book available for purchase from The Alexandria Shop)
• Style and Identity: Black Alexandria in the 1970s. Portraits by Horace Day. (Exhibit Catalogue)

Historic Preservation and Urban Renewal

• The Beginnings of Historic Preservation in Alexandria-Moving Toward the Creation of the Old and Historic District, by Peter H. Smith. Alexandria Chronicles, Alexandria Historical Society, Winter 1996.
• The George Washington Memorial Parkway --A Statement of Policy on Memorial Character by the Old and Historic Alexandria District Board of Architectural Review, by Peter H. Smith. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Summer 1999.
• Recollections of a Board of Architectural Review Member, by Thomas Hulfish III. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Summer 1998.
• Oral Histories of the Historic Preservation Movement: Hood Barringer, C. Richard Bierce, Robert Montague, III and Marian Van Landingham.
• The Parker-Gray District: Examining a Local Historic District a Generation Later, by Catherine K. Miliaras, Alexandria Chronicles, Alexandria Historical Society, Spring (1), 2015.
   

Places

• A History of Lloyd House, Part II History of the Structure: 1833 - 1918. Lloyd House Enters the 20th Century: 1918 - 1956, by Timothy Dennée. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Spring/Summer 2004.
• The Torpedo Factory: The Torpedo Factory, built in 1918, was originally the U.S. Naval Torpedo Station. Watch a 23-minute video, and read an Oral History from Marian Van Landingham, founder of the Torpedo Factory Art Center.
• Beachcombers Restaurant. O Prince Street, by Diane Riker. This building was originally the Beachcombers Restaurant. Built on stilts over the water, it was once one of Alexandria's finest restaurants
• A Study in Decentralized Living: Parkfairfax, Alexandria, Virginia, by Laura L. Bobeczko. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Spring 1997.
   

Transportation

• History and Archaeology of Potomac Yard, a former rail switching yard. Oral Histories of Potomac Yard employees, Heritage Trail signs, and archaeological reports.
• The History of Potomac Yard: A Transportation Corridor through Time. By Francine W. Bromberg, Alexandria Archaeology. North Potomac Yard Small Area Plan. See Appendix III, page 103.
• The Alexandria Union Station, by Al Cox, AIA. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Winter 1996.
• Flying the Capitol Way, Part I, by Kristin B. Lloyd. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Winter 1997
• Flying the Capital Way, Part II, by Kristin B. Lloyd. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Spring 1998.

Commemorations in Alexandria
Alexandria commemorates important anniversaries in the history of our country and our city.

• 1907 - Souvenir Virginia Tercentennial 1607-1907 of Historic Alexandria, Virginia (1907) : Souvenir Virginia Tercentennial 1607-1907 of Historic Alexandria, Virginia, by Andrew J. Wedderburn (Alexandria, 1907). An illustrated guide to Alexandria buildings and neighborhoods. This book was created as a promotional piece with the support of Alexandria's then-new Chamber of Commerce, founded the same year, and attempted to tie into the statewide excitement surrounding the 300th anniversary of Jamestown.  Today, it serves as a useful snapshot of the community, showing Alexandria as a busy city of small industries, shops, and regional commerce, even though its once famous port had long since declined.
• 1949 - 200 Years of Progress: A booklet created for Alexandria's Bicentennial.
• 1949 - Remembering Alexandria's Bicentennial -- Philately, by Timothy J. Dennée. Historic Alexandria Quarterly, Spring 1999.

History of Alexandria’s African American Community
Alexandria’s African American History includes a vibrant free black population dating to the 18th century, one of the largest domestic slave trading operations, and early actions in the Civil Rights movement.  

Alexandria's African American Community: Online Resources
Explore books, brochures and lesson plans to learn more about the history of Alexandria's African American community, organized by the following topics.

• General History
• Early Free Black Neighborhoods
• Black Churches
• Slavery in Alexandria
• The Civil War
• Black Neighborhoods after the Civil War
• Immune Regiments in the Spanish Civil War
• Lynchings and the Equal Justice Initiative
• Education and the Parker-Gray School
• Civil Rights: Samuel Tucker and America's First Sit-Down Strike
• The Ramsey Homes and Public Housing

Alexandria Waterfront Documentary Study

A comprehensive study is underway on a six-block area along the waterfront, in advance of flood mitigation. The final product will be a comprehensive report on the historical development of this six-block area. This report will serve as the historical guide for archaeological assessments of proposed and future infrastructure and development projects within this portion of the waterfront. Learn More.

Other Resources

Alexandria was originally founded as a port on the Potomac River. Research and ongoing archaeological work is revealing more about the City’s maritime past. Learn more about The Alexandria Waterfront

Alexandria and the War of 1812

Learn about how Alexandria responded when British forces arrived off the shore of Alexandria just after the burning of Washington in August of 1814. 

The Confessions of John Trust

The Confessions of John Trust is an epic story from 1866 that has it all: adventure, romance, a long-lost twin, hypnotism, and murder. It combines the Tale of the Female Stranger, the real-life murder of William Seaver, and features actual Alexandria locations.

Hispanic Heritage in Alexandria

Alexandria has a long history of residents who moved here from Central and South America. Beginning in the 1980s, a large community from El Salvador settled in the neighborhood we now call “Chirilagua,” after the city in El Salvador of the same name.

Historic Cemeteries of Alexandria

Learn more about the many historic cemeteries within Alexandria. 

Black Education in Alexandria: A Legacy of Triumph and Struggle

Learn about the history of Black education in Alexandria, from 1793 to 2023.

Historic Preservation

Learn more about the history of preservation in Alexandria. 

Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present and Future

Learn more about Alexandria’s growing immigrant community, both past and present. 

Lynchings and the Alexandria Community Remembrance Project

In Alexandria, there is documentation of the lynching of two individuals, Benjamin Thomas and Joseph McCoy. Learn more about their stories and the times in which they lived. 

Women's History in Alexandria

Throughout the centuries, women have made significant contributions to Alexandria. Find a number of stories about women in our community.