Alexandria Archaeology Bibliography

This bibliography is a comprehensive listing of written material on archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia. It also includes some historical and architectural studies.
Page updated on November 20, 2024 at 5:08 PM
Translate icon

Alexandria Archaeology Bibliography

The bibliography includes site reports and public summaries, as well as books, journal articles and in-house publications. 

In an attempt to bring the so-called “gray literature” to light, many of the archaeological reports listed below are available for download as PDFs. Titles without attached PDFs may be read, by appointment, at the Museum. Items listed as Alexandria Archaeology Publications, a series of booklets and manuscripts published by the Museum, and photocopies of archaeological reports may also be ordered for a fee, by contacting the museum.

Researchers should take into consideration that the breadth of this bibliography led to the inclusion of a number of outdated entries that do not reflect contemporary scholarship. Also, for those reports involving prehistory, it should be noted that the date ranges for the three traditional American Indian cultural periods (Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Woodland) vary in the reports. Archaeologists continue to develop a regional framework as new finds are made and thus further refine the date ranges. Alexandria Archaeology employs the following timeline: Paleo-Indian circa 11,000 - 7,500 BC, Archaic circa 7,500 - 1,000 BC, and Woodland circa 1,000 BC - 1600 AD.

If you know of additional titles, please contact us so that they may be added to the bibliography.

How to Find a Report

The bibliography is arranged alphabetically by author. If you are searching for a particular site, property name, or subject, select CTR/F on your keyboard and put your search term in the pop-up.

You can also search by location using the interactive Alexandria Archaeology Report Finder (AARF) map. The interactive map presents data spatially and works best when you have a specific location you want to research.

A-F

A

Adams, Robert M. 

  • 1996 - Preliminary Archaeological Investigation of the Stonegate Development (Parcel C) West Braddock Road, City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming.

    Stonegate Parcel C (American Indian tool-making area; possible slave/tenant residence; Civil War encampment), 4600 West Braddock Road. 

    Archaeological survey and testing of the 13-acre project area revealed three periods of occupation. The discovery of a larger and, more importantly, undisturbed lithic assemblage indicated a longer or larger prehistoric occupation of Parcel C than adjacent Parcels A and B. The absence of building nails associated with the remains of the early to mid-19th-century residence pointed to either a house of log construction or the salvaging of materials for reuse. (Archaeologists noted the similarity to the Mark Center/Winkler Botanical Preserve slave/tenant residence, 44AX162 and 163.) Lastly, the few mid-19th-century artifacts were consistent with a Civil War-period encampment, perhaps associated with nearby Fort Ward. (Note: Researchers also should review the five other reports for Stonegate -- four prior and one later -- and the site report for Mark Center/Winkler Botanical Preserve [44AX162 and 163].)

  • 1996 - Report on R, F & P Potomac Yard – Track Relocation Project. International Archaeological Consultants, Hayes, Virginia.

  • 1996 - The Archaeological Investigation of the Former Preston Plantation and Alexandria Canal at Potomac Yard. Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Hayes, Virginia.

    Potomac Yard/Potomac Yard Center (residence; farm; cemetery; canal; rail yard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War). 

    Before developing the project area into a retail center, archaeologists assessed the former location of the Alexander family’s Preston plantation and cemetery, dating to the early 1700s, and the Alexandria Canal (1843–1887). The cemetery’s burials were moved to Pohick Church in 1922. The area was graded in 1933 to accommodate a rail yard, so the plantation and cemetery likely were leveled. The study area played a considerable role in rail transport. Its first line was completed in 1857, and used by the United States Military Railroad during the Civil War. By the turn of the 20th century, it contained probably the largest railway classification yard in the U.S. Unfortunately the area’s several uses were not visible in the highly disturbed soil. The historic topography had been removed through grading and filling so there were no cultural resources present. (Note: Researchers also should review the two other reports for Potomac Yard.)

  • 1994 - The Archaeological Investigation of the Undeveloped Upland Terraces in Mark Center, City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming. Public Summary 

    Mark Center/Winkler Botanical Preserve (American Indian tool-making site; slave/tenant residence), 1600 Beauregard Street, 44AX162 and 163. 

    Archaeological survey and testing of the 62-acre upland terraces resulted in an American Indian tool-making site (44AX163) and a 19th-century historic site (44AX162). Investigation of the prehistoric site produced few artifacts and no features. Excavation of the historic site uncovered a structure, built circa 1800 and destroyed by fire by 1870. Analysis of ceramics, bottle and window glass, nails, and personal items and diet through faunal remains indicated that the occupants were probably enslaved or tenants of George Hunter Terrett, a large land-owner. (Note: Researchers also should review the three other reports for Mark Center—two prior and one later.)

  • 1993 - The Archaeological Investigations of Two Storm Drain Corridors at the Stonegate Development, Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming.

    Stonegate Parcels A, B, and D (American Indian tool-making area; domestic area), 4600 West Braddock Road.

    Archaeologists explored two storm drain outfall corridors on 22 acres, discovering numerous lithic fragments as well as a small number of late 19th-century domestic materials such as ceramic, glass, and metal. The area contained no features and the soil was highly disturbed, making further excavation unnecessary prior to construction of the housing development. (Note: Researchers also should review the five later reports for Stonegate.)

  • 1991 - Archaeological Survey of the Proposed Upper and Lower Ponds at the Winkler Botanical Preserve, Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming.

    Mark Center/Winkler Botanical Preserve Upper and Lower Ponds (possible American Indian tool-making area), 1600 Beauregard Street.

    In surveying the project area, archaeologists unearthed one prehistoric artifact—a modified flake—and a few historic artifacts, including brick fragments and ceramic sherds. A previously registered site, 44AX12, lying partially within the survey area, yielded one lithic flake. (Note: Researchers also should review the three other site reports for Mark Center—one prior and two later.)

Adams, Robert M. [et al.] 

  • 1993 - Archaeological Investigations of the Stonegate Development (Including Sites 44AX31, AX166 and 167), City of Alexandria, Virginia. International Archaeological Consultants, Rawlins, Wyoming. Appendices A-C. Appendices D-M. Public Summary 

    Stonegate Parcels A, B, and D (American Indian base camp and tool-making site; residence), 4600 West Braddock Road, 44AX31, 166, and 167. 

    Before construction of the housing development, archaeologists investigated the 22-acre site, turning up two houses and an outbuilding. The structural remains dated from the mid-19th century to the 1950s. Also discovered were three undisturbed Late Archaic lithic scatters, representing three separate tool-manufacturing activities, plus Woodland (or perhaps earlier) cultural deposits along the creek floodplain. (Note: Researchers also should review the five other reports for Stonegate -- one prior and four later.)

Alexandria Archaeology 

  • 2023 - Managing Alexandria’s Derelict Merchant Fleet: Documenting, Preserving, and Interpreting Four Historic Ships from the Hotel Indigo (44AX229) and Robinson Landing (44AX235) Archaeological Sites. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 132.
  • 1999 - A Community Digs Its Past: The Lee Street Site. Alexandria Archaeology Publications.

  • 1994 - Summary of Area A Archaeological Phase II Survey: Carlyle Project, Alexandria, Virginia. Prepared by Alexandria Archaeology, City of Alexandria, Virginia, for Alexandria Southern Properties, Inc. Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 67.

    Carlyle Project Area A, west of 1700 block of Duke Street at Holland Lane. 

    Alexandria Archaeology produced a summary of the work conducted by Tellus, Inc., for Norfolk Southern Properties in the Carlyle Project area. The area was divided into three units: Area A, Area B, and the Silver Leaf (Colored) Black Baptist Cemetery/African American Heritage Park (44AX136). Tellus completed a draft report on the cemetery and preliminary Phase II reports on blocks within Area A but no final reports. (A report on Area B was completed by another firm.) City archaeologists undertook an Area A summary. Area A included most of the land west of Holland Lane in Carlyle. In it were found prehistoric and historic deposits plus railroad features and a roundhouse. (Note: Researchers also should review the site reports for Silver Leaf (Colored) Black Baptist Cemetery/African American Heritage Park/Carlyle Project [44AX136], Alexandria Federal Courthouse [44AX164], Shuter’s Hill Brewery/Klein’s Brewery/Englehardt’s Brewery/Carlyle Project Area II-B [44AX35], United States Patent and Trademark Office/Carlyle Project Block F [44AX189], and Virginia Glass Company/Carlyle Project Block D [44AX181]. Additionally, researchers should read Historic Photographic Documentation of the Southern R&R [sic] Roundhouse by Kathryn A. Brown.)

  • 1982 - Historical Preservation. 1992 Master Plan for the City of Alexandria.
  • 2012 - Stage 1 Archaeological Investigation at Fort Ward Historical Park, Alexandria, Virginia. Results of Identification Survey at the Old Graveyard, Jackson Cemetery, Short Homestead, and Maintenance Yard. Prepared by Alexandria Archaeology in conjunction with The Ottery Group, Olney, Maryland. Pages 1-31, 32-75, 76-96, 97-112, Finds List. Abstract.

Anderberg, Lorna 

Anderson, Adrian D. 

  • 1992 - The African American Heritage Park, Alexandria, Virginia. Draft manuscript. Tellus Consultants Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

    Silver Leaf (Colored) Black Baptist Cemetery/African American Heritage Park/Carlyle Project (black Baptist cemetery), 500 Holland Lane, 44AX136. 

    Initial investigation of the 1.1-acre property, now African American Heritage Park unearthed a headstone belonging to Abraham Hunter, though it was not clear that the monument was associated with a burial until additional head and foot stones were found, supporting the presence of a cemetery on site. Archival evidence confirmed the establishment of a cemetery in 1885 by the Silver Leaf (Colored) Black Baptist organization. It then was buried under landfill in the early 1960s. A second phase of investigation by city archaeologists resulted in three graves, coffin fragments and hardware, and a portion of a man’s vest. Two other individuals were identified: Sarah Hunter and Julia Ann Washington. A third phase of investigation by the same firm that completed the initial phase led to the discovery of 28 burials, identified by grave shafts and coffin fragments and hardware, and shells placed above the graves—common in African American mortuary tradition. In addition, two more of the interred were named: Mary Rome and Matilda Gaines. (Note: This report is not final. It is an incomplete preliminary draft so there is some missing information and the map is not complete. Its inclusion here is a testament to the site’s importance. Researchers also should review the report for Carlyle Project Area A. Additionally, researchers should read “A Preliminary Historical Report: The Baptist Cemetery Association of Alexandria, Virginia” by Pamela J. Cressey [1985] and “African American Heritage Park: Archaeological Investigations” by Francine Bromberg and Steven J. Shephard [1992], both Alexandria Archaeology Publications.)

Appler, Douglas R.

Architrave P.C., Architects 

  • 2000 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project. Historic Structures Report and Treatment Plan for the Jones Point Lighthouse and District of Columbia South Cornerstone. Jones Point Park, Alexandria, Virginia. Washington, D.C.

Arden, Lynn 

  • 1980 - The Deterioration and Treatment of Excavated Organic Materials from the 500-Block of South King Street, Alexandria Virginia. M.A. Thesis, Department of Museum Studies, The George Washington University. University Microfilms, Intl., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Artemel, Janice G. Elizabeth Crowell, Donald A. Hull and Dennis Knepper  

  • 1988 - A Phase IIA Archaeological Study, Old Ford Plant Site, Alexandria, Virginia. Appendices. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C.

    Keith’s Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford’s Landing/“Old Ford Plant” (wharf; boat launch; shipyard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War, supply depot; coal yard; rail yard; automobile plant; gun factory), 600 block of South Union Street, 44AX119. 

    A Phase I inquiry into this approximately 9.5-acre waterfront parcel laid out site history along with what archaeologists could expect to find plus how development would affect the archaeological resources. The project area consisted of made-land, filled between 1782 and 1785, creating a wharf that, at the time of inquiry, was composed of a parking lot, the 1932 Ford plant for automobile assembly and shipping, a boiler building, water tower, underground tanks, and a 1943 United States government building, constructed after 1942. (The Navy used the complex as an annex to its Piney Point, Maryland, gun factory.) In the early 19th century, “Keith’s Wharf,” as it was known, served as a commercial wharf for loading and discharging cargo. In the latter part of the 19th century, then again after the Civil War (until 1917), wharf activity consisted of shipbuilding and repair. During the war, the wharf served as the United States Military Railroad Depot. Beginning in 1880, the site also functioned as a coal yard. A rail yard prospered on site during World War I, facilitating industrial access to the waterfront and thereby supporting the shipping industry at Jones Point. Phase IIA testing uncovered large buried timbers associated with the 18th-century wharf, late 19th-century coal and coal residue deposits attributed to the coal yard, and 20th-century fill. Archaeologists recommended further fieldwork prior to development of the project area. The Phase IIB/C and III study of Keith’s Wharf and Battery Cove found remains of the bulkhead of the wharf, marine railway, shipway/building slip, eight derelict vessels, barges, and a keeled vessel, and artifacts, including some prehistoric, ceramic and wine bottle glass artifacts, nails, etc. The derelict vessels were recovered from Battery Cove, a shallow bay stretching from the southern edge of the wharf to the historic Jones Point, used as a dump during early 20th-century river dredging activities. The artifacts were considered incidental inclusion in fill, redeposited from the initial point of discard. The investigation resulted in an extensive site report, which offered much historical information, a reconstruction of Keith’s Wharf, analysis of its construction and comparison to other wharves on the East Coast, discussion of the use of fill to restructure the city landscape, look into wharf construction as a craft, and examination of the economics of wharf construction and operation. (Note: Researchers also should review the three other site reports for 44AX119 and Breweries and Bottling Companies in the Washington Area by Engineering-Science, Inc.)

Artemel, Janice G., Elizabeth A. Crowell and Jeff Parker 

  • 1987 - The Alexandria Slave Pen: The Archaeology of Urban Captivity. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C.

    Franklin and Armfield Slave Pen/Alexandria Hospital (residence; slave jail; Civil War soldiers’ prison; hospital; boarding house; tenant residence), 1315 and 1317 Duke Street, 44AX75. 

    Pre-construction archaeological research and excavation of the site, identified primarily as the Franklin and Armfield slave jail, documented five periods of occupation from 1812–1979, three of them transient. The site was first inhabited in 1812 by General Andrew Young. Archaeologists investigated the structures that served as his residence/office and kitchen, as they were still standing albeit significantly altered. Found at the interstate slave-trading complex (1828–1861) were architectural artifacts and features, including wells and postholes, but also a faunal object and a trash pit. During the Civil War (1861–1865), the property became a prison for Union soldiers. Archaeologists excavated a privy from this period. Pharmaceutical bottles, hypodermic needles, and a carpetbag date to the 1878–1885 use of the site as Alexandria Hospital. Lastly, from 1885–1979 there was a boarding house and apartments. The majority of the site’s artifacts date to this period. (Known as Freedom House, 1315 Duke St. is now one of the Historic Alexandria Museums.)

B

Baicy, Daniel

Baicy, Daniel, David Carrol, Elizabeth Waters Johnson and John P. Mullen

Balicki, Joseph, Kerri Holland, Bryan Corle and Lynn B. Jones 

  • 2008 - Documentary Study and Archaeological Investigation, 1226 North Pegram Street and Polk Avenue (44AX198), Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia.

    1226 North Pegram Street (possible slave/tenant residence; possible target practice or weapons discharge area, Civil War), 44AX198. 

    Residential development on the 1.87-acre site spurred an archaeological inquiry. Finds dated to the late 18th–mid-19th century. Artifacts, three trash pits, and posthole likely corresponded to the Terrett family occupation period, though not to the Terretts themselves. Archaeologists cautiously associated these findings with a once nearby outbuilding or slave/tenant residence. The finding of a large number of buttons pointed to a laundry area. Other artifacts included ceramic sherds; bottle and window glass pieces; animal bone, brick, nail, oyster shell, and pipe fragments; and two possible prehistoric quartz flakes. A Civil War military artifact concentration primarily consisted of fired ammunition, suggesting that the area was used for target practice or discharging weapons by Union soldiers before returning to camp.

Balicki, Joseph and Bryan Corle 

  • 2006 - Archaeological Evaluation and Resource Management Plan for Episcopal High School Faculty Housing, 1200 Quaker Lane, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia. Public Summary 

    Episcopal High School Faculty Housing (Civil War encampment) 1200 North Quaker Lane, 44AX200. 

    Before the construction of new faculty housing on the 0.67-acre high school property, archaeologists performed Phase I testing, finding a scatter of Civil War artifacts associated with a summer encampment but also earlier and later artifacts, too, ranging from the 18th through the early 20th century. Tests revealed disturbed stratigraphy due to plowing. The site also suffered from relic hunting. Yet fieldwork and metal detecting found: a 1774 Virginia halfpenny related to an unidentified 18th-century usage or occupation of the site as well as five coins ranging from 1837 to circa 1930; Civil War-era ammunition, uniform buttons, a shoulder scale attachment, canteen spout fragment, two gun cone protectors, and two pieces of carved or shaped lead plus two pieces of melted lead; ten non-military clothing artifacts, including three bearing Episcopal High School designations; and a pocket watch, pocket knife, and watch key. The project area lay within a larger site (44AX173), which encompassed the Virginia Theological Seminary and Episcopal High School. In June of 1861, the whole tract was commandeered by Union troops for a hospital, encampment, barracks, etc., explaining the presence of Civil War material in the project area. (Note: Researchers also should review the site report and inventory for Virginia Theological Seminary Faculty Housing [44AX173a].)

Balicki, Joseph, Bryan Corle, Charles Goode and Lynn Jones 

  • 2005 - Archaeological Investigations for Quaker Ridge Housing (44AX195), Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia. Public Summary 

    Quaker Ridge (Civil War encampment and hospital), 3517–3543 Duke Street, 44AX195. 

    Five residential lots on approximately 2.5 acres were to be redeveloped into townhouses, thus archaeologists were required to study the site. Civil War-era artifacts suggested the presence of a soldiers’ camp: ammunition, buttons, buckles, cap insignia, knapsack parts, shoe nails, and a decorated pipe bowl. Further supporting this were eight features: seven hearths (five probably kitchen-related and two probably for heating tents) and a remnant of a Crimean Oven, which would have heated the camp hospital tents. The Crimean Oven remnant resembled that found at site 44AX193 on N. Quaker Ln. Archaeologists identified the site as the autumn-of-1861 New York militia camp, potentially that of the 38th New York infantry regiment. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for 206 North Quaker Lane [44AX193] and Weicking Property.)

Balicki, Joseph, Bryan Corle and Kerri Holland 

  • 2006 - Archaeological Testing (44AX199) 108 N. Quaker Lane, Smucker Property, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia.

Balicki, Joseph, Kerri Culhane and Donna J. Seifert 

  • 2001 - Archeological Investigations at 1456 Duke Street (44AX188), Proposed Marriott Residence Inn, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia.

    Duke Street Tannery/Marriott Residence Inn (butchery/slaughterhouse; tannery; store; possible tenant residence), 1456 Duke Street, 44AX188. 

    The proposed erection of a Marriott Residence Inn prompted archaeologists to complete two phases of investigation: documentary study followed by excavation. The site’s location in the West End, an unincorporated community outside the city limits until its 1915 annexation, made it the prime location for slaughtering and tanning. The Duke Street Tannery/Tanyard operated from circa 1796 to the mid-19th century, burning down in 1853. Key to the development of the West End was the village’s location on Little River Turnpike (now Duke Street) and Hooff’s Run, a navigable waterway with access to Alexandria’s port (via Hunting Creek). Archival research confirmed that the site gave way to commercial and residential functions after its tanning days. A two-story frame store (1456 Duke St.) appeared in 1902 and 1921 maps; the 1921 map also showed an adjacent brick house thought to be the tenement illustrated on an 1845 map. Since the 1930s, the store structure sustained several additions and alterations, making the discovery of ground disturbance during excavation likely. Archaeologists found no significant artifacts or features. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX188.) 

Balicki, Joseph and Kirstin Falk 

  • 2008 - Documentary Study for 3510-3618 Wheeler Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc.

    3510–3618 Wheeler Avenue (possible prehistoric area; possible Civil War encampment). 

    A documentary study of the approximately 6.5 acres, which were to be redeveloped into a police facility, showed that they once contained a mid-19th-century structure, such as a barn or other outbuilding. The project area was likely occupied by American Indians and then by Federal troops during the Civil War, but 20th-century grading and other ground disturbing activities removed any trace of these occupations. No further work was advised.

Balicki, Joseph F., Sarah Traum, Walton H. Owen II and Amanda Balough

Barbash, Walter V. and Timothy J. Dennée 

  • 1993 - The First Lager Brewery in America, American Breweriana Journal, January - February 1993

Barr, Keith L. 

Barr, Keith L., Pamela J. Cressey and Barbara H. Magid 

  • 1994 - How Sweet it Was: Alexandria's Sugar Trade and Refining Business, in Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake, Paul A. Shakel and Barbara J. Little, editors. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. and London.

Barr, Keith L., Pamela J. Cressey and Steven J. Shephard 

Barse, William P. and Jeffrey Harbison 

  • 2006 - Phase III Archeological Mitigation of the Prehistoric and Historic Components of Site 44AX185, Jones Point Park, Alexandria, Virginia. URS Corporation, Florence, New Jersey.
  • 2000 - Phase II Archaeological Testing on the Prehistoric and Historic Components of Site 44AX185, Jones Point Park, Alexandria, Virginia. URS Corporation, Florence, New Jersey. [DRAFT]

Bartlett, Rebecca and Pamela J. Cressey 

Beiro, Jean A. 

Bernstein, Peter 

Bevan, Bruce 

  • 1999 - A Geophysical Survey at the Alexandria Freedmen's Cemetery. Geosight, Weems, Virginia. Prepared for URS Greiner, Inc., Florence, New Jersey.

Blomberg, Belinda 

  • 1989 - The Formation of Free Black Communities in Nineteenth-Century Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 2.
  • 1988 - Free Black Adaptive Responses to the Antebellum Urban Environment: Neighborhood Formation and Socio-economic Stratification in Alexandria, Virginia, 1790-1850. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, American University. University Microfilms, Intl., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Blondino, Joseph R.

Blondino, Joseph R., Kevin McCloskey and Katherine Watts

Bodor, Tom 

Boyd, Varna G. 

  • 1990 - Archaeological Investigations at the Proposed Duke Street Baptist Church Home for the Elderly. 

Boyd, Varna G., Elizabeth A. Moore, Joan W. Chase, William Reid and Richard J. Dent 

Lynn House (possible residence), 4400 West Braddock Road, 44AX152. 

Plans to build a new nursing facility south of the site’s existing one precipitated archaeological investigation. Survey and testing unearthed late 19th- and 20th-century artifacts from disturbed ground and the cellar of a mid-20th-century structure destroyed by fire. Archaeologists theorized that either extensive grading pre-construction obliterated all evidence of any historic structures or that these lay underneath the facility. The site may have never even had any. (Note: Lynn House is the name of the present-day Christian Science nursing facility; it is not an historical site name. It is named after Church of Christ, Scientist, founder Mary Baker Eddy’s home in Lynn, Massachusetts.)

Bromberg, Francine 

Bromberg, Francine and Pamela Cressey

Bromberg, Francine, Pamela Cressey, Garrett Fesler, Paul Nasca and Ruth Reeder.

  • 2017 - We Dig Alexandria: A Reflection on More Than Fifty Years of Community Archaeology. Urban Archaeology, in Municipal Government and Local Planning: Preserving Heritage within the Commonwealth of Nations and the United States. Editors, Sherene Baugher, Douglas R. Appler, William Moss. Springer International Publishing. Chapter 11, pp. 203-225.

Bromberg, Francine and Steven J. Shephard 

Bromberg, Francine W., Steven J. Shephard, Barbara H. Magid, Pamela J. Cressey, Timothy Dennée, and Bernard K. Means. 

  • 2001 - To Find Rest From All Trouble: The Archaeology of the Quaker Burying Ground, Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 120. 

Brown, Kathryn A. 

Bryant, Tammy 

C

Carpenter, James R. and Henry L. Lucas 

  • 1990  - Report of Preliminary Subsurface Exploration and Geotechnical Analysis: Proposed CNS Development, Alexandria, Virginia. ECS, Ltd., Chantilly, Virginia.

Carroll, David and Kathleen Jockel

  • 2022 - Shirley Gardens, City of Alexandria, Virginia. WSSI #22039.05. Documentary Study & Archaeological Evaluation. Prepared for Hekemian & Co. Thunderbird Associates. A Division of Wetland Studies and Solutions, Inc. Gainesville, VA.

Cheek, Charles D. 

  • 1992 - Addendum: Phase Ib Archeological Survey for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study, Jones Point U.S. Army Reserve Training Headquarters, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia

Cheek, Charles D. and Cecile G. Glendening 

Cheek, Charles D. and Dana B. Heck 

Cheek, Charles D., Donna J. Seifert and J. Sanderson Stevens 

  • 1990 - Phase IA Archaeological Survey for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia.

Cheek, Charles D. and Karen L. Zatz 

Child, Kathleen M. and Martha R. Williams

Claypool, Julia and Edna Johnston

Clem, Michael 

Commonwealth Heritage Group, Inc.

Cox, Al 

Crampton, Alice C., Diane Halsall and J. Sanderson Stevens 

  • 1997 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project Improvement Study: Historic Resources Identification and Evaluation Report. Parsons Engineering Science, Inc., Fairfax, Virginia

Cressey, Pamela J. 

  • 2006 - Digging for the Past: Alexandria, Virginia. With Margaret J. Anderson. Oxford University Press. Available for purchase at The Alexandria Shop.
  • 2002 - Walk and Bike the Alexandria Heritage Trail. A Guide to Exploring a Virginia Town's Hidden Past. Capital Books, Inc., Sterling VA.  
  • 1999 - Setting the Scene, in The Archaeology of 19th Century Virginia. Theodore R. Reinhart and John H. Sprinkle, Jr., editors. Council of Virginia Archaeologists. Special Publication of the Archaeological Society of Virginia.
  • 1994 - Alexandria Artifacts. A weekly newspaper column in The Alexandria Gazette Packet, 1994-1997.
  • 1993 - To Witness the Past: African American Archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia. Exhibit Catalogue. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 105. 
  • 1990 - L’Archaeologie Urbaine aux Etas-Unis, Archaeologiques, Numeros 3-4, L’Association des archaeologues du Quebec, Quebec, Canada.
  • 1990 - Managing Archaeological Resources in Alexandria, Virginia: Knowing What You Know and Don’t Know. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 14.
  • 1987 - Community Archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia, Conserve Neighborhoods, No. 69, National Trust for Historic Preservation Washington, D.C.
  • 1985 - The Alexandria Virginia City-Site: Archaeology in an Afro-American Neighborhood, 1830-1910. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Iowa. University Microfilms, Intl., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
  • 1985 - A Preliminary Historical Report, The Baptist Cemetery Association of Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 20.
  • 1985 - The Archaeology of Free Blacks in Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 19.
  • 1984 - Remembering the Alexandria Canal, Fairfax Chronicles, Vol. 8, pp. 1-3.
  • 1983 - Approaches to Preserving a City’s Past. Alexandria Archaeology Publications, No. 103. 
  • 1981 - The Alexandria Urban Archaeology Project: An Integrative Model for Systematic Study, Conservation, and Crisis, Anthropological Careers, T. Landman, editor, Anthropological Society of Washington, D.C.
  • 1980 - An Enduring Afro-American Neighborhood: An Archaeological Perspective from Alexandria, Virginia, Black Heritage, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 1-10.
  • 1979 - Historical Archaeology and the Alexandria Urban Archaeology Project, Fairfax Chronicles, Vol. 3, No. 1.
  • 1978 - The City as a Site: The Alexandria Model for Urban Archaeology, in Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1978.

Cressey, Pamela J. and Keith L. Barr 

  • 1989 - The Right Way to Dig at Home, Preservation News, National Trust for Historic Preservation, Washington, D.C.

Cressey, Pamela J. and Belinda Blomberg 

  • 1989 - The Nineteenth Century Transformation and Spatial Development of Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology Publications.
  • 1986 - Cities and Archaeology – Research 1985.Compilation of City Overviews and Bibliographies, compiled for the Urban Archaeology Group, Alexandria Archaeology Publications.  

Cressey, Pamela J. and Susan L. Henry 

Cressey, Pamela J. and Steven J. Shephard 

Cressey, Pamela J. and John F. Stephens 

  • 1982 - The City-Site Approach to Urban Archaeology in Alexandria, Virginia, in Archaeology of Urban America: The Search for Pattern and Process, R.S. Dickens, Jr., editor. Academic Press, New York.

Cressey, Pamela J., Barbara H. Magid, Steven J. Shephard, and John F. Stephens 

  • 1982 - The Core-Periphery Relationship and the Archaeological Record in Alexandria, Virginia, in Archaeology of Urban America: The Search for Pattern and Process, R.S. Dickens, Jr., editor. Academic Press, New York.

Creveling, Donald K. 

  • 1987 - Archaeological Investigations at Christ Church, Alexandria, Virginia, Alexandria History, Vol. VII, pp. 30-48.

Creveling, Donald K. and Pamela J. Cressey 

  • 1986 - Christ Church (44AX88) Archaeological Study, Second Testing. Alexandria Archaeology, Office of History Alexandria, City of Alexandria, Virginia.

Cromwell, T. Ted 

Bontz Site/West End Village, United States Military Railroad Complex (residence; rail yard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War, complex including commissary and locomotive turnaround), 1100–1900 Duke Street, 44AX103 and 105

Pre-road widening archaeologists undertook Phase II analysis of this stretch of Duke Street, unearthing a 19th-century wooden drain culvert, a post stain associated with a possible early 19th-century residence, and the remains of two late 18th-/early 19th-century residences. But the landscape had been so altered that only sites 44AX103 and 44AX105 were recommended for further study. The Bontz site (103), in the former West End Village, encompassed the remains of two early to mid-19th-century residences. Site 105 contained a part of the Civil War-era United States Military Railroad complex, including a commissary and locomotive turnaround. Archaeologists suggested additional analysis to document the location’s pre-Civil War occupation. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX103 and 105 and the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company, Spring Garden, West Family Cemetery [44AX183], and Whole Foods/Royalton Project [44AX190].)

Cromwell, T. Ted and Timothy J. Hills 

Bontz Site/West End Village, Spring Garden Farms/United States Military Railroad Complex (residence; butchery/slaughterhouse; farm; resort; rail yard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War, complex including commissary and locomotive turnaround), 1100–1900 Duke Street (specifically 1700 and 1200), 44AX103 and 105

This Phase III report cleared sites 44AX103 and 44AX105 for road-widening work. It included an extensive history of West End Village, with maps, and of the sites in the early 20th century. Archaeologists cited the narrow width of the construction zone and the area’s high degree of disturbance as their reasons for giving authorization. The Bontz site (103), in the former West End Village, encompassed the remains of two structures—both with a history spanning from the late 18th through the mid-20th century. Butchers occupied the structures and may have used one or both for business. Archaeological study turned up several sheet middens at the site and determined that there had been rear additions and renovations to the properties. Many lots in the West End were owned by butchers at this time. The well-preserved Civil War-era United States Military Railroad complex site (105) included a commissary and locomotive turnaround. Formerly the location comprised the Spring Garden Farms subdivision and resort. Then residential gave way to industrial use, which in turn was followed by the railroad. Threats of development prompted archaeologists to call for more fieldwork for the parts of sites not affected by roadwork. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX103 and 105 and the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company, Spring Garden, West Family Cemetery [44AX183], and Whole Foods/Royalton Project [44AX190].)

Crowl, Heather and Brian Schwart

Crowl, Heather and Ralph Koziarski

Crowl, Heather, Peter Regan and Scott Seibel

Cuddy, Thomas W., Francine W. Bromberg, Heather Crowl, T. Michael Miller, Kevin Mock and Cynthia Pfansteihl 

  • 2006 - The North Lee Street Project: A Phase I, II, and III Archeological Investigation of 221 North Lee Street, Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria Archaeology, Alexandria, Virginia and URS Corporation, Gaithersburg, Maryland.

D

Daugherty, Jesse, Madeleine Pappas, Justin Patton and Kimberly Prothro 

Debats, Donald A 

Deines, Ann 

  • 1994 - Slave Population in 1810 in Alexandria, Virginia: A Preservation Plan for Historic Resources. Master’s Thesis, Department of American Studies, The George Washington University, Washington, D.C.

Dennée, Timothy J. 

DeRossi, Lenora 

Doell & Doell 

Dutton, David H.

Dutton, David H and Dara A. Friedberg

E


EDAW, Inc. 

  • 1984 - Mount Vernon Memorial Highway Historic Resources Study.
  • n.d. - Cultural Landscape Report: Mount Vernon Memorial Highway. Volume I: History.
  • n.d. - Cultural Landscape Report: Mount Vernon Memorial Highway. Volume II: Documentation.
  • n.d. - Cultural Landscape Report: Mount Vernon Memorial Highway. Appendix F: Final Construction Report by W.I. Lee
  • n.d. - Cultural Landscape Report: Mount Vernon Memorial Highway. Appendix G: Final Landscape Report by Wilber Simonson.

Embrey, James W., Lynn D. Jones and Joseph Balicki 

Engineering-Science, Inc. 

2915 King Street (possible prehistoric site; residence), 44AX122 

Phase I examination of the two-acre site, which included a house and outbuilding, consisted of archival study to develop the chain of title and subsurface testing. One prehistoric quartz flake and a second piece of debitage -- both found in a disturbed context—represented the extent of the pre-20th-century material. 20th-century artifacts included ceramics, glass, nails, and coal, making an early 20th-century date for the house and outbuilding very likely. Archaeologists noted the possibility of a 19th-century structure existing under or within the 20th-century one. 

Keith’s Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford’s Landing/“Old Ford Plant” (wharf; boat launch; shipyard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War, supply depot; coal yard; rail yard; automobile plant; gun factory), 600 block of South Union Street, 44AX119 

A Phase I inquiry into this approximately 9.5-acre waterfront parcel laid out site history along with what archaeologists could expect to find plus how development would affect the archaeological resources. The project area consisted of made-land, filled between 1782 and 1785, creating a wharf that, at the time of inquiry, was composed of a parking lot, the 1932 Ford plant for automobile assembly and shipping, a boiler building, water tower, underground tanks, and a 1943 United States government building, constructed after 1942. (The Navy used the complex as an annex to its Piney Point, Maryland, gun factory.) In the early 19th century, “Keith’s Wharf,” as it was known, served as a commercial wharf for loading and discharging cargo. In the latter part of the 19th century, then again after the Civil War (until 1917), wharf activity consisted of shipbuilding and repair. During the war, the wharf served as the United States Military Railroad Depot. Beginning in 1880, the site also functioned as a coal yard. A rail yard prospered on site during World War I, facilitating industrial access to the waterfront and thereby supporting the shipping industry at Jones Point. Phase IIA testing uncovered large buried timbers associated with the 18th-century wharf, late 19th-century coal and coal residue deposits attributed to the coal yard, and 20th-century fill. Archaeologists recommended further fieldwork prior to development of the project area. The Phase IIB/C and III study of Keith’s Wharf and Battery Cove found remains of the bulkhead of the wharf, marine railway, shipway/building slip, eight derelict vessels, barges, and a keeled vessel, and artifacts, including some prehistoric, ceramic and wine bottle glass artifacts, nails, etc. The derelict vessels were recovered from Battery Cove, a shallow bay stretching from the southern edge of the wharf to the historic Jones Point, used as a dump during early 20th-century river dredging activities. The artifacts were considered incidental inclusion in fill, redeposited from the initial point of discard. The investigation resulted in an extensive site report, which offered much historical information, a reconstruction of Keith’s Wharf, analysis of its construction and comparison to other wharves on the East Coast, discussion of the use of fill to restructure the city landscape, look into wharf construction as a craft, and examination of the economics of wharf construction and operation. (Note: Researchers also should review the three other site reports for 44AX119 and Breweries and Bottling Companies in the Washington Area by Engineering-Science, Inc.)

Erickson, Philip M. 

F

Fauber Garbee, Inc. 

Carlyle House (residence), 121 North Fairfax Street, 44AX3 

Earnest Wagar undertook the reconstruction of the 1753 house in 1906 as a house museum. It fell into decline until 1974 when the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority preserved it to the period of John Carlyle’s lifetime (mid- to late 18th century) as a historic site within a public park. The NVRPA plan of action involved demolishing the mid-19th-century Mansion House Hotel on the property and remodeling the adjacent Bank of Alexandria. Demolishing the hotel brought the previously obscured house into view. The office and kitchen dependencies were demolished previously in 1855. This report detailed the house’s construction and design influences and offered a history of the property and house itself, including its remodelings and occupations. Results of the archaeological investigation included such features as well shafts and privies holding ceramics, glasswares, bottles, and other artifacts dating to or close to the lifetime of Carlyle. These emanated from both the house property and the Mansion House Hotel/Bank of Alexandria. A separate draft archaeological report presented a history of the site along with a study and catalogue of the artifacts. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX3.) 

Federal Highway Administration 

  • 1998 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study Archaeological Research Summary Alexandria, Virginia. Washington, D.C.

Ferland, Sara C., Mike Klein and Emily A. Lindtveit 

Mark Center VI (Area A), Buildings 2A, 2B, and 3 (Area B) (American Indian basecamp or tool-making site), 4900 Seminary Road, 44AX205 (in Area A)  

Archaeologists uncovered a prehistoric site in Area A. Finds included the base of a Savannah River point, circa 2,500–1,000 B.C. Fieldwork yielded numerous stone tools and lithic debris from toolmaking plus two isolated historic artifacts. (Note: Researchers also should review the three earlier reports for Mark Center.) 

Fesler, Garrett R.

Fesler, Garrett R. and Francine Bromberg

Fiedel, Stuart J. and Bryan Corle 

Battery Heights (residence; battery of Civil War fort), 514 North Quaker Lane, 44AX186 

Prior to residential development of the approximately 1.6-acre site, archaeologists performed shovel tests and investigated the project area’s previously identified Civil War-era earthwork. Tests gleaned ceramic, glass, and metal fragments associated with the site’s residential past. An 1861 map showed four residences with the project area located between two of them. The ceramics suggested an initial presence in the area circa 1780–1840. The earthwork, dated to circa 1863 (if not before), represented one of the two batteries associated with the Union occupation of the Cooper family plantation, Cameron, also known as Cooper’s Hill and, by Union soldiers, Traitor’s Hill or Fort Traitor (44AX199). (Cameron was one of the four houses shown on the 1861 map, but not one of the two flanking the site.) Archaeologists attributed the absence of Civil War artifacts to relic hunting or the infrequent presence of troops in any numbers at the battery, characterized as an “unarmed fortification.” A line of earthworks ran southeast from this point to Fort Williams, though the existence of a rifle trench at this battery set it apart from others.

Foss, Robert M. 

Gadsby’s Tavern (tavern; residence; hotel), 134 North Royal Street, 44AX2 

Charles and Ann Mason opened a tavern on site in 1752. In 1778, the property was divided into seven fronts on Royal Street, but, in 1792, they were reconsolidated for John Wise’s three-story structure. Then, in 1802, John Gadsby’s lease for a tavern called for him to erect a brick stable and dwelling house (outside the site) and to remove any wooden outbuildings in disrepair. In 1878, the American Legion wing was added to what was then the City Hotel. The several occupations and uses of the project area made sorting out the archaeological findings complicated. For example, the courtyard showed evidence of four structures: a brick footing dating to the 1750s, probably from one of the earliest outbuildings on the site; two additional brick footings, dating between 1796–1815, thought to represent an addition to the coach house; and a small section of brick walkway dating to after 1770. Archaeologists recommended exploring the rest of the courtyard prior to it being sealed with concrete. Also, the report called for creating an artifact inventory.

Franz, Karl

Friedman, Janet, Phillip Hill, Kevin Mock, Heather Crowl and Cynthia Pfanstiehl 

  • 1998 - The North Lee Street Project: A Phase I, II, and III Archeological Investigation of 221 North Lee Street, Alexandria, Virginia, Site 44AX180. Dames & Moore, Bethesda, Maryland.

G-L

G

Gardner, William M. and Gwen Hurst 

Bush Hill (possible prehistoric site; residence; farm; railroad; Civil War encampment), 4840 Eisenhower Avenue, 44AX111 

Through documentary study and walkover reconnaissance of the 10.67-acre former plantation, archaeologists determined that, of the site’s four survey areas, three warranted further attention: B, where, despite Eisenhower Avenue construction impact, prehistoric or Civil War finds were possible; C, where outbuilding foundations and features were expected; and D, where there were Civil War encampments and possibly the estate’s gardens and outbuildings. Area A was too highly disturbed to justify future survey. Additional disturbances included railroad rights-of-way through the property. This last known plantation site in the city was thought to have been built in 1763; it was destroyed by arson in 1977, when it functioned as the Holly Hill School. Following this preliminary investigation, archaeologists completed three phases of testing and excavation. Despite deep fill horizons, exposed were foundations, a brick walkway, front yard stairway, and midden -- the only in-situ deposit of the earliest phase of the main house’s occupation. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX111 and the report for Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley.) 

Gardner, William M., Gwen Hurst and Kimberly A. Snyder 

118 King Street (wharf; commercial/industrial area; residence; possible inn or tavern) 

Three phases of archaeological investigation ascertained that the project area was originally in the crescent bay around which Alexandria was developed. John Fitzgerald and Valentine Peers made the south side of the 100 block of King Street by “banking out” from the bluffs. This block was commercial and residential. Despite the lack of context created by the watery environment archaeologists dated the numerous recovered artifacts from the late 18th to the early 19th century and characterized them as either refuse or representative of wharf activities, possibly even of a nearby inn or tavern. Found were sherds of pottery, glass bottles, tumblers, windowpanes, mortar, and wood; fragments of leather, brick, plaster, bone, teeth, pipes, and sheet iron; clam and oyster shell pieces; nails; a large oval-handled wash pan; flaked shale tool; and black English flint spall. Perhaps most interesting were the gaming stones, thought to be associated with a West African game, thereby suggesting the presence of slaves at the wharf. (Note: Researchers also should review the site report for Fitzgerald’s Wharf [44AX146]. For a more recent study, researchers should read “ Fitzgerald’s Warehouse: King and Union Streets ” by Diane Riker [2008], one of the Office of Historic Alexandria’s Studies of the Waterfront.)  

Gardner, William M., Gwen J. Hurst and John P. Mullen 

Bush Hill (possible prehistoric site; residence; farm; railroad; Civil War encampment), 4840 Eisenhower Avenue, 44AX111 

Through documentary study and walkover reconnaissance of the 10.67-acre former plantation, archaeologists determined that, of the site’s four survey areas, three warranted further attention: B, where, despite Eisenhower Avenue construction impact, prehistoric or Civil War finds were possible; C, where outbuilding foundations and features were expected; and D, where there were Civil War encampments and possibly the estate’s gardens and outbuildings. Area A was too highly disturbed to justify future survey. Additional disturbances included railroad rights-of-way through the property. This last known plantation site in the city was thought to have been built in 1763; it was destroyed by arson in 1977, when it functioned as the Holly Hill School. Following this preliminary investigation, archaeologists completed three phases of testing and excavation. Despite deep fill horizons, exposed were foundations, a brick walkway, front yard stairway, and midden -- the only in-situ deposit of the earliest phase of the main house’s occupation. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX111 and the report for Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley.) 

Gardner, William M. and Jennifer Schmidt 

First Baptist Church (Baptist church), 2932 King Street 

Before parking lot construction and road widening, Phase I archaeological testing on the seven-acre playing fields and picnic areas resulted in the discovery of one prehistoric flake from the plow zone and seven historic artifacts, including a whiteware sherd, lead pellet, and five bottle glass fragments from fill. Much of the project area had been filled to level the ground for church recreational activities. Archaeologists recommended no additional work.

Gardner, William M. and Kimberly A. Snyder 

  • 2001 - Phase I Archeological Investigations of the Proposed Northampton Place Apartments, Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archeological Associates, Inc., Woodstock, Virginia.

Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, and Tammy Bryant 

Stonegate Parcel C (American Indian tool-making site), 4600 West Braddock Road, 44AX176 and 177 

Phase III archaeological excavation at site 44AX177 yielded over 17,000 prehistoric artifacts. It was one of only a few intact prehistoric sites discovered at the time in Alexandria. The site represented four use periods, spanning from the Halifax phase at the end of the Middle Archaic (3600–2500 B.C.) to the Late Woodland (900–1700 A.D.) period, though remains dated primarily to the Holmes phase of the Late Archaic (1800–1200 B.C.) period. Additionally, archaeologists recovered 26 prehistoric artifacts from nearby site 44AX176, making it a peripheral activity area associated with 177. (Note: Researchers also should review the five other reports for Stonegate—three prior and two later.)

Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, Tammy Bryant and Gwen J. Hurst 

Stonegate Parcel C (possible tenant residence; farm), 4600 West Braddock Road, 44AX177 

The archaeological record in this Phase III exploration showed architectural and artifactual evidence of a residence dating to circa 1790–1830. The absence of finery among the ceramic and glass sherds and other cultural remains pointed to lower-middle- to middle-class occupants, probably tenant farmers of Ludwell Lee, Benjamin Dulany, or Thomas Watkins. This was further supported by the house’s log construction, as opposed to more expensive brick, supported by the deficiency of building nails. (Note: Researchers also should review the five earlier reports for Stonegate and the site report for Mark Center/Winkler Botanical Preserve [44AX162 and 163].) 

Stonegate Parcel C (American Indian tool-making site; possible tenant residence), 4600 West Braddock Road, 44AX177 

Phase II excavation unearthed the circa 1790–1830 residence, identified as a possible log structure. Archaeologists purported that tenants of Ludwell Lee, Benjamin Dulany, or Thomas Watkins lived there. Found at the site were: middens containing ceramic, glass, oyster shells, and other refuse, a possible summer kitchen, domestic artifacts, including some luxurious items like china, and numerous unrelated prehistoric lithics. (Note: Researchers also should review the five other reports for Stonegate - two prior and three later.) 

Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, and Gwen J. Hurst 

Van Dorn Street Metro Station (residence; possible cemetery; railroad), 5651–5701 Eisenhower Avenue, 44AX178 

A Phase I study of these 11.5 acres discovered intact structural remains and refuse from a 1820s–1840s occupation. Architectural finds pointed to a large brick house, and expensive ceramics suggested fairly well-off inhabitants. The structure was razed, probably in the 1850s or 1860s, to make way for the railroad. An unused railroad bed, predating the Civil War, was found on site; archaeologists connected it to site 44AX54, lying just outside the project area. Phase II work was recommended to more fully investigate and preserve evidence and search for a possible cemetery. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley and Eisenhower Avenue Earthwork Site/Van Dorn Street Metro Station [44AX54].) 

Gardner, William M., Kimberly A. Snyder, Gwen Hurst, Joan M. Walker and John P. Mullen 

Spring Garden/Old Town Village (possible prehistoric area; residence; farm; resort; Orange and Alexandria Railroad; United States Military Railroad, Civil War), 1000–1100 Duke Street 

Archaeologists expected to focus on the Civil War-era United States Military Railroad complex, but investigations resulted in five periods: prehistoric; 1690–1800; circa 1800 to early 1850s (Spring Garden and Orange and Alexandria Railroad); early 1850 to mid-1861 (military takeover of railroad); 1861–1865 (Civil War); and post-1865. Much of the project area’s topography was altered, but some major features were discovered: a circa 1805–1850 well, an octagonal United States Army Engineers privy, used during the Civil War and into the 1890s—the largest found to date in Alexandria—and the foundations of a pre-war house, which functioned as a hospital during the war. It contained some remarkably well-preserved artifacts, including fragments of fabric and leather. (Note: Researchers also should review the other report for Spring Garden and the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, including 44AX103 and 105, Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company, and Whole Foods/Royalton Project [44AX190].) 

Gardner, William M. and Michael Clem 

Christ Church Churchyard Wall Reconstruction (Anglican/Church of England then Episcopal church; cemetery), 118 North Washington Street, 44AX88 

Archaeologists monitored the removal of masonry elements on site during the reconstruction of a portion of the east churchyard wall, and identified, mapped, and photographed 12 grave shafts in the area of construction. (Identification errors resulted in the destruction of human remains and the loss of data in nine graves.) Also found was a brick footing, most likely associated with an earlier wall or structure removed to make way for this wall in the 1820s. There was no evidence of a mass grave of Confederate soldiers, despite an on-site monument’s assertion that one existed within the project area. Archaeologists contended that burials lay outside the churchyard, under the sidewalk and probably the roadway, meaning potentially hundreds of unmarked burials. During the reconstruction of a portion of the north churchyard wall, four grave shafts and a French drain materialized. By the west wall, there were 33 graves, represented by coffin remains or grave shafts. Four of these held human remains. (Note: Researchers also should review the five other site reports for 44AX88—two prior and three later.)  

General Services Administration 

  • 1992 - Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement: Naval Systems Command Consolidation. Volume I and Volume II - Appendices.

González, Kerry S., Danae Peckler, Kerri S. Barile, and Kathleen Merli

Goode, Cynthia V. and Charles E. Goode

Goode, Charles E. and Sarah Traum

Goode, Charles and Peter Leach 

Greenly, Mark D. 

Grieco, Glenn

H

Hahn, Thomas Swiftwater and Emory Kemp 

  • 1992 - The Alexandria Canal: Its History and Preservation. West Virginia University Press.

Hayes, Daniel R.

Henley, Laura 

  • 1991 - Archaeological Data Book for Alfred Street Baptist Church 301/303 South Alfred Street, Alexandria, Virginia. Robert J. Nash & Associates, Oxon Hill, Maryland.

Hill, Phill 

Historic Alexandria, Office of 

  • n. d. - Nomination of Hoof’s Run Railroad Bridge to the National Register

Holland, Kerri, Cyntia V. Goode, Charles F. Good and Joseph F. Balicki 

  • 2010 - Archeological Evaluation Associated with Utility Improvements and New Central Plant Facility, Virginia Theological Seminary, Alexandria, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia. 

Holland, Kerri, Lynn D. Jones, and Charles Cheek 

Hurst, Gwen J. 

Fitzgerald’s Wharf (dock and pier; warehouse; store), 104 South Union Street (previously 101 Wales Alley), 44AX146 

Archaeologists undertook an archival study of a parking lot. The former Seaport Inn and Restaurant, on the west side of the project area, was known as Fitzgerald’s Warehouse in the late 18th century and Irwin’s Warehouse in the 19th century. The site was a wharf this whole time. In 1877, there was a brick building on site. From 1885–1907, it functioned as a “Junk and Rags Warehouse” then, from 1907–1912, a second-hand store. It was vacant from 1921–1941. In 1958, records showed an empty lot so the building had been demolished by this time. (Note: Researchers also should review the report for 118 King Street.) 

Hutchins-Keim, Karen

 

J

Jenkins, Virginia 

Jenkins, Virginia and Sara Revis 

Jirikowic, Christine, Gwen J. Hurst and Tammy Bryant 

1400 Janney’s Lane (residence; Civil War encampment), 44AX191 

Located on property known as Stump Hill, Oak Hill, or Oak Grove, the approximately six-acre site served two primary purposes until its most recent use by the Second Presbyterian Church. Residential occupation began in 1832 with the construction of a house, though because of disuse the structure fell into disrepair. It was destroyed and a new house with outbuildings built in the 1850s. Yet another house went up in 1911. The site’s second function was as a Civil War-era encampment, well centered between Fort Williams, gun batteries, and rifle pits and directly adjacent to a hospital. The archaeological record revealed domestic artifacts like ceramic sherds, architectural fragments, food waste, and large amounts of coal and slag, speaking to the site’s first purpose. (Union camp refuse, that is, glass bottles, bullets, and metal hardware associated with military uniforms and equipment, also was found.) Also found was a brick foundation, probably belonging to either the 1832 or 1850s house, though the disturbed soils surrounding it prevented its dating. (Note: Researchers also should review the site report for 206 North Quaker Lane [44AX193].) 

206 North Quaker Lane (residence; farm; Civil War encampment and possible hospital), 44AX193 

Tobacco importer Josiah Watson’s property, Stump Hill, was subdivided after he filed for bankruptcy in the late 1790s. Two roads were created through the property, providing access to the lots; one of these was today’s Quaker Lane. On the west of this thoroughfare lay the Cooper family plantation, Cameron, also known as Cooper’s Hill and, by Union soldiers, Traitor’s Hill or Fort Traitor (44AX199). Excavation here turned up a brick Crimean Oven, which likely would have heated the camp hospital tents. It was preserved, making it the only feature of its kind ever discovered. The feature resembled that found at the Quaker Ridge site on Duke Street (44AX195). Also discovered was 19th-century artifact scatter, including bottle glass fragments mostly from alcoholic beverage bottles, metal hardware associated with uniforms and equipment, munitions, ceramics, and architectural materials. The high proportion of refined versus utilitarian ceramics indicated higher status personnel, that is, officers. Archaeologists purported that the 38th New York infantry regiment camped here; they were stationed in the area in the winter of 1861. Archaeologists recommended no additional work due to extensive disturbance by relic hunters. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for 1400 Janney’s Lane [44AX191], Quaker Ridge [44AX195], and Weicking Property.) 

Elliot House (residence), 323 South Fairfax Street, 44AX192 

The house was built by 1842, then occupied by the household of Charles Unruh, who sold it in 1855. It sustained various additions after its sale, though the main house was virtually untouched. The Old Presbyterian Meeting House, which took control of the property in 1979, planned to build a partly subterranean addition to the house, so archaeologists excavated in the rear and north yards prior to construction, discovering a number of features including a cistern and well, both dating to the Unruh occupation or earlier. The cistern apparently was abandoned long before the well; it was filled after 1848. Artifacts included food refuse, ceramics, bottle glass, glass tableware, chimney lamp glass, windowpane glass, nails, and personal items. The well was not abandoned and filled until after 1910. It contained bottle glass primarily, some ceramics and personal items, and large quantities of oyster shells and furnace/stove waste. 

John Cullinane Associates 

Keith’s Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford’s Landing/“Old Ford Plant” (automobile plant; gun factory; warehouse), 600 block of South Union Street, 44AX119 

This architectural assessment provided a history of the site’s ten extant structures built after 1932 by Ford or the United States government (specifically the Navy) and recommended buildings for restoration and demolition. Ford occupied the project area from 1932–1942 with a plant designed by Albert Kahn for automobile assembly and shipping, a boiler building, water tower, and underground tanks. After buying the property from Ford in 1942, the U.S. government built an extension in 1943 and used the complex as an annex to its Piney Point, Maryland, gun factory. The Navy then constructed a “machinist shop” in the early 1950s. After 1960, the site functioned as a government warehouse facility until it was sold for private development in 1984. (Note: Researchers also should review the three other site reports for 44AX119 and Breweries and Bottling Companies in the Washington Area by Engineering-Science, Inc.)  

John Milner Associates 

Christ Church (Anglican/Church of England then Episcopal church; cemetery), 118 North Washington Street, 44AX88 

This Historic Structure Report of the “Church of Alexandria,” built in 1773 and attended by George Washington, offered a detailed discussion of the evolution of the building, modeled after an English village church by designer James Wren, and its surroundings, including cemetery, enclosures, and walks. The churchyard served many functions, housing a residence, library, vestry house, school, and fire company engine house through the years, but, in 1853, these buildings were replaced by a two-story brick parish house. During the Civil War, the church functioned while other city churches were appropriated for military (non-religious) purposes. The report examined the church in 1979 compared to its completion in 1773 plus all modifications, repairs, and improvements in between. Finally, the report laid out restoration and preservation objectives for the historic property. (Note: Researchers also should review the five other site reports for 44AX88—one prior and four later.) 

Christ Church Churchyard Wall (Anglican/Church of England then Episcopal church; cemetery), 118 North Washington Street, 44AX88 

Christ Church was completed in 1773, with its earliest burials taking place by that time. It adhered to the model of an English village church. By 1809, most burials were banned, both for sanitation and space concerns. Before 1787, the churchyard was not enclosed, but was by 1806. Then, from 1829–1830, a wall and railing with an entrance gate went up along the public, or south, side. The church fenced the north and west sides in 1844 with board fencing; this was repaired after the war then kept up through three quarters of the 19th century. In 1898, a masonry and iron fence was erected. This documentary report advocated for archaeological fieldwork on site in an attempt to find the earliest churchyard enclosures. (Note: Researchers also should review the five later site reports for 44AX88.) 

Johnson, Edward and John Mullen 

Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company (residence), 1300 block of Duke Street 

Significant ground disturbance after the mid-20th century left next-to-no trace of the buildings and features that once stood in the project area. Archaeologists also monitored construction activities where earth-moving could expose artifacts or features still remaining. Revealed were three brick features: two brick foundations, built in the 1840s, and one brick-lined water filtration cistern, built between 1836 and 1852. The foundations were thought to be associated with the John P. Emerson house, demolished in 1953. These features were disturbed and partially destroyed in the construction of a service station (standing on the property until 2007). Archaeologists supervised the removal of the filtration cistern, which also showed signs of disturbance, recording the feature and collecting artifacts. It was cleared out in the early 1900s to be used solely for refuse, explaining the presence of late 19th- and 20th-century fill. (Note: Researchers also should review the other report for Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company and the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, including 44AX103 and 105, Spring Garden, and Whole Foods/Royalton Project [44AX190].) 

Johnson, Edward and Tammy Bryant 

Johnson, Nadia E. RPA and William J. Johnson PG.

Jones, Lynn D. et al. 

K

Kaye, Ruth Lincoln 

  • 1988 - Study of Local Maps and Plats.

Ketz, K., Anne & Theresa Reiner 

Based on bottles and embossed bottle glass fragments excavated at the Old Ford Plant site on the Alexandria waterfront, archaeologists formulated this reference document on breweries, bottlers, and dairies in the Washington, D.C., area, dating from the second half of the 19th century until World War II. This report also included preliminary research on Maryland brewers and bottlers. (Note: Researchers also should review the updated comments associated with this document and the site reports for Keith’s Wharf/Battery Cove/Ford’s Landing/“Old Ford Plant” [44AX119].) 

KFS Historic Preservation Group and Jay F. Custer 

Washington Quartermaster Depot/Cameron Station/Clermont Avenue Interchange (possible prehistoric site; World War II Army Quartermaster Depot), 4700–5200 blocks of Duke Street, 44AX158 

The proposed Clermont Avenue Interchange precipitated a historical survey of the site in which archaeologists suggested its nomination to the National Register of Historic Places. Covering 166 acres, the Army’s Washington Quartermaster Depot (later known as Cameron Station) comprised 22 structures, with 17 dating to the World War II period. A second building phase in the late 1950s/early 1960s raised a convenience store, guard house, pavilion, and service station. The World War II-era structures adhered to military construction standards for the time—concrete, brick, and frame rather than precious steel; buildings added after the war conformed to the style of these earlier structures. The focus of the facility was its eight warehouses, which in 1962 were converted into office space. The warehouse interiors were altered while the footprints were not, remaining essentially unchanged up to this 1991 study. In the 1990s the facility served as a commissary and Post Exchange System for Washington-area military personnel. Attached correspondence noted that the facility was to be closed and also that it was determined ineligible for the NRHP. The 1992 report testified to the site’s low archaeological potential because of the area’s large amounts of fill and historic wetlands environment. In 1998, because of a proposed housing development, geomorphological and archaeological investigations, specifically soil coring and shovel testing, took place, to find the historic grade beneath all the fill. From this horizon archaeologists found one piece of glass, one piece of metal, one quartzite flake, and two small debitage. The presence of these lithic artifacts, the site’s proximity to a stream, and the historic wetlands environment suggested that the area may have been occupied by American Indians in the past; however, the minimal findings and extent of disturbance at the site led archaeologists to conclude that no further study was warranted. (Note: Researchers also should review the report for Clermont Avenue Interchange.)  

Klein, Mike, Danae Peckler, Joseph R. Blondino and Marco Gonzalez

Klein, Terry H. and Mark R. Edwards 

  • 2002 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project Jones Point Park Archaeological Preservation Plan Alexandria, Virginia. Potomac Crossing Consultants. URS Corporation, Florence, New Jersey.

Knepper, Dennis A. and Marilyn Harper 

  • 1991 - Maritime Archaeology at Keith's Wharf and Battery Cove (44AX119): Ford's Landing, Alexandria, Virginia. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C.

Knepper, Dennis A. and Madeleine Pappas 

  • 1990 - Cameron Mills: Preliminary Historical and Archaeological Assessment of Site 44AX112, Alexandria, Virginia. Engineering-Science, Inc., Washington, D.C.

Knepper, Dennis A. and Kimberly Prothro 

Roberdeau’s Wharf/Harborside (distillery; wharf; warehouse; sail loft; brewery; shipyard; foundry; Civil War complex including warehouses and freed black/contraband residence; coal yard; rail yard; power plant), 400 South Union Street, 44AX114 

Most of the 3.5-acre waterfront lot was made-land, built as a wharf in the late 18th century, and serving as a commercial wharf and shipyard into the 19th century, including a brewery, foundry, and locomotive works. An electric power plant functioned in the first half of the 20th century. Archival research plotted ownership and usage of the property, beginning with Daniel Roberdeau’s rum distillery in 1774. By the 1790s, Roberdeau extended the wharf into the water, switching over to the businesses of shipping and trade. By 1791, the distillery served as a warehouse and sail loft. The distillery was referred to as a brewhouse in the early 19th century. By 1803, Roberdeau leased land south of the distillery to John Hunter, to be used as a shipyard—one of the earliest in Alexandria. The facility, which operated until after 1850, had a small number of enslaved African Americans who may have lived within the project area, though the archaeological record did not support this. The foundry opened around 1829 and closed in 1857. After the Civil War, only the foundry and a few outbuildings still stood. These structures served as storehouses and freed black/contraband quarters during the war. Next came the coal yard and the establishment of railroad tracks, linking these and other industries to the waterfront. By 1907, the power plant had opened. Excavation turned up wood planking with a compressed wood chip and pine tar surface (wharf), portions of brick furnace and coal bin (brewery), and remains of various buildings related to the power plant. Artifacts included: ceramic and glass fragments, a few whole or nearly complete glass vessels, pipe fragments, and a bayonet, but primarily architectural materials, such as window glass, nails, wooden planks, and small wooden objects. Archaeologists unearthed one prehistoric stone tool thought to have been discarded or washed in from a nearby site. 

Koski-Karrell, Daniel 

Moore-McLean Sugar House (sugar refining factory; residence), 111 North Alfred Street, 44AX96 

From circa 1804–1828 the factory, run by William Moore then Daniel, followed by son Samuel, McLean, operated on what are today lots 111–123 N. Alfred St. Prior to the construction of an addition to the property, archaeological excavation exposed brick building foundations and coarse whiteware used in sugar refining. In addition, archaeologists discovered domestic artifacts related to the residential occupation of the site beginning in 1841. (Note: Researchers also should review the site report for 900 King Street [44AX113]. Additionally, researchers should read Barr, Cressey, and Magid’s 1994 article “How Sweet it Was: Alexandria’s Sugar Trade and Refining Business” in Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake.) 

Mount Ida/North Ridge Neighborhood/Colonial Park, First Addition (prehistoric site; farm; residence), 2404 Russell Road, 44AX168 

A residential development led to an archaeological study of the four acres, including historical background and fieldwork, prior to any ground-disturbing activity. The Mount Ida house was built between 1800–1808 by Charles Edward Alexander, Jr., as the main residence of the Mount Ida farm, which survived into the early 20th century when the land was subdivided, creating the North Ridge neighborhood. The house existed as a single-family dwelling until it was purchased in 1942 by an order of nuns who enlarged it into a convent and built a school on the property. After 1991, the convent and school passed to separate owners. Research showed that 19th-century occupation was primarily intermittent and prior to the Civil War and that there was more intensive occupation afterward. This was reflected in the archaeological record; most artifacts dated post-1840 and predominately post-1880. Also discovered were a handful of prehistoric artifacts, not representative of a tool-making site. 

Koziarski, Ralph, Peter Regan and Scott Seibel

Koziarski, Ralph and Benjamin M. Stewart

Kraus, Lisa, John Bedell and Charles LeeDecker 

Bruin Slave Jail (residence; slave jail), 1707 Duke Street, 44AX172 

Before redevelopment of the property, all modern structures were demolished and fill removed, leaving a circa 1820 two-story brick house. Slave trader Joseph Bruin operated a slave-trading establishment here (1844–1861). He purchased several people who attempted to escape aboard the schooner Pearl in 1848, including Emily and Mary Edmonson, and he inspired some of the characters and incidents in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Archaeological excavation turned up pre-Civil War artifacts as well as features indicating slave quarters and a separate kitchen for the slaves along with a brick cistern, which served the jail and wash house. (Archaeologists suggested in this site report that there were several other structures on the property inhabited and/or used by Bruin’s slaves.) Following their capture, the Edmonson sisters occupied both the jail and wash house, probably using water from the cistern to wash clothes. A storage pit near or inside the slave quarter included artifacts suggestive of a hoodoo ritual deposit, providing some insight into the personal and spiritual lives of Bruin’s slaves. The kitchen midden contained animal bones, ceramics, and other artifacts. In addition, the discovery of stylish ceramics dating to the 1840s and 1850s in the slave jail implied a close association between the jail and Bruin house. (The cistern is preserved, and a sculpture honoring the Edmonson sisters has been erected.)    

Kreisa, Paul P., Eric Griffitts and John Gentry

Kreisa, Paul P., Jacqueline M. McDowell and Mathew Gill 

1604–1614 King Street (possible prehistoric area; tenant residence; residence; commercial/industrial area) 

The 0.4-acre project area contained six townhouses. This Phase IA report documented the use of the property from agricultural (pasture for livestock grazing) to residential (a 19th-century tenement then townhouses built between 1913–1918) to commercial after 1959. Its proximity to Hoof’s Run increased its potential to include prehistoric resources. 1614, which suffered substantial damage in a 1999 fire, was to be demolished entirely or at least partially while 1604–1612 were to be retained and returned to residential use. Developers planned to put in a new residence plus underground parking at the rear of the study area. 

  • 2006 - Phase IA Archaeological Assessment of 1604-1614 King Street Properties, Alexandria, Virginia. Greenhorne & O-Mara, Inc., Laurel, MD.

L

Landes, Robin S. and Joanna T. Moyar 

Larrabee, Edward McM. 

Fort Ward (Northwest Bastion of Civil War fort), 4301 West Braddock Road, 44AX90 

Archaeological excavation in 1961 spurred the restoration of the fort’s Northwest Bastion the following year and the subsequent ongoing preservation of the site. Excavation recovered few artifacts (Gabion wire and cut spikes), but exposed multiple features, including the earth structures of the filling room and powder magazine as well as the parapet, drainage ditch, gun embrasures, and platforms. Investigation revealed two details: first, that the site expanded between 1861–1865 and, second, that the timber beams used in the construction of the earth structures were carefully removed from the site for reuse circa 1866. Archaeologists cited the fort as an example of Civil War military engineering at its finest. (This was the first archaeological project in Alexandria.) (Note: Researchers also should review the site report for “The Fort” Neighborhood/Fort Ward Historical Park, Old Grave Yard [44AX90 and 153].) 

More on Archaeology at Fort Ward  

Leach, Peter A. and Sarah Traum 

LeeDecker, Charles 

Christ Church Wheelchair Ramp Construction (Anglican/Church of England then Episcopal church; cemetery), 118 North Washington Street, 44AX88 

In monitoring the construction of a wheelchair ramp, archaeologists came across what appeared to be seven grave shafts in the northern portion of the site. There were no archaeological resources in the southern half. The grave shafts included one possible infant burial and one possible vault-style grave because of its larger size. The graves were preserved in-situ through filling with gravel and reinforced concrete, creating a foundation for the ramp. (Note: Researchers also should review the five earlier site reports for 44AX88.) 

LeeDecker, Charles H. and Amy Friedlander 

  • 1985 - Archaeological Survey of Proposed Bike Path, Foot Path, and Soccer Fields at Jones Point Park, Alexandria, Virginia. Louis Berger & Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey.

LeeDecker, Charles and John Bedell 

Whole Foods/Royalton Project (residence; tenant residence; bakery; grocery store; automobile dealership; automotive paint shop; shopping center), 1700 block of Duke Street, 44AX190 

In 2003 archaeologists accomplished two phases of study—research then digging—on the site’s approximately 1.65 acres prior to the imminent construction of a Whole Foods and residences on top of what had been a shopping center and parking lot from 1959–2002. Construction also was to include the removal of a grassy island, sidewalk widening, installation of underground utilities, and surface grading. During the initial phase, archaeologists established a complete chain of title, recording the various functions of the site over time: first, residential, including tenant occupation, then commercial, beginning with a bakery in the late 18th to early 19th century, then, by 1924, a grocery store, followed by a automobile dealership, automotive paint shop, and lastly the shopping center. John West, Jr. sold a lot to John Limerick in 1797, which he then subdivided. The larger lot became 1724 Duke St., the smaller one 1718. A house stood on the 1724 lot by 1804, but there was no good record of a house on the smaller lot until 1902. Excavation in the mid-1980s of the 1100–1900 blocks of Duke Street recovered the remnants of two late 18th- to early 19th-century buildings—one frame, one brick (identified as the Bontz site, 44AX103)—plus 19th- and 20th-century artifacts. Then, in 1988, excavation revealed fence postholes but more notably 24,000 ceramic and glass artifacts, pipe fragments, buttons, coins, marbles, and brick, dating to the late 18th/early 19th through the mid-20th century. Digging in 2003 exposed a 20th-century cellar, a brick wall that was probably part of a 19th-century house foundation, a 19th-century brick drain, and a brick-lined well similar to those built in the 19th-century along with 20th-century domestic artifacts. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, including 44AX103 and 105, Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company, and Spring Garden.)  

Levinthal, Aaron 

Louis Berger & Associates, Inc.

Clermont Avenue Interchange (possible prehistoric area; World War II Army Quartermaster Depot), between Eisenhower Avenue and I-495 

Infrastructure improvements precipitated two phases of archaeological survey and testing.  This Phase IB report incorporated the results of the prior IA report in order to better contextualize the project area. Phase IA covered a large area of approximately three square miles. It identified a stream bed of possible prehistoric archaeological significance as well as one important historic structure—Cameron Station, a World War II-era Army Quartermaster Depot (44AX158)—that would be affected by construction. Phase IB further refined potential locations of archaeological sites and historic structures but deferred intensive fieldwork until a preferred route (from five possible alignments) was selected. It recommended further survey and also machine testing, focusing on the areas where construction was expected to penetrate through the fill into the natural landscape. (Note: Researchers also should review the site reports for Washington Quartermaster Depot/Cameron Station/Clermont Avenue Interchange [44AX158].) 

Washington Quartermaster Depot/Cameron Station/Clermont Avenue Interchange (possible prehistoric site; World War II Army Quartermaster Depot), 4700–5200 blocks of Duke Street, 44AX158 

The proposed Clermont Avenue Interchange precipitated a historical survey of the site in which archaeologists suggested its nomination to the National Register of Historic Places. Covering 166 acres, the Army’s Washington Quartermaster Depot (later known as Cameron Station) comprised 22 structures, with 17 dating to the World War II period. A second building phase in the late 1950s/early 1960s raised a convenience store, guard house, pavilion, and service station. The World War II-era structures adhered to military construction standards for the time—concrete, brick, and frame rather than precious steel; buildings added after the war conformed to the style of these earlier structures. The focus of the facility was its eight warehouses, which in 1962 were converted into office space. The warehouse interiors were altered while the footprints were not, remaining essentially unchanged up to this 1991 study. In the 1990s the facility served as a commissary and Post Exchange System for Washington-area military personnel. Attached correspondence noted that the facility was to be closed and also that it was determined ineligible for the NRHP. The 1992 report testified to the site’s low archaeological potential because of the area’s large amounts of fill and historic wetlands environment. In 1998, because of a proposed housing development, geomorphological and archaeological investigations, specifically soil coring and shovel testing, took place, to find the historic grade beneath all the fill. From this horizon archaeologists found one piece of glass, one piece of metal, one quartzite flake, and two small debitage. The presence of these lithic artifacts, the site’s proximity to a stream, and the historic wetlands environment suggested that the area may have been occupied by American Indians in the past; however, the minimal findings and extent of disturbance at the site led archaeologists to conclude that no further study was warranted. (Note: Researchers also should review the report for Clermont Avenue Interchange.)  

Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley (possible prehistoric area; residence; farm; mill; mill race; distillery; brewery; tavern; Civil War entrenchments; railroad infrastructure), nearly 2,000 acres bounded by Duke Street, Holland Lane, I-95, and Van Dorn Street 

Archaeologists completed a preliminary evaluation of the extensive project area, performing field reconnaissance (not subsurface work) then making suggestions for future studies because of anticipated development, that is, the Woodrow Wilson Bridge. Also identified were buildings over 50 years old and those of potential historic architectural significance. Recognized sites within the study area’s boundaries included the Eisenhower Avenue Earthwork Site/Van Dorn Street Metro Station (44AX54) and Shuter’s Hill Brewery/Klein’s Brewery/Englehardt’s Brewery/Carlyle Project Area II-B (44AX35). Additionally, a prior 1970s study recorded ten more sites or features of interest: Bush Hill (early 19th-century Scott family plantation, 44AX111), an early 19th-century masonry mill foundation (potentially Cameron Mills, 44AX112), two other mills, a mill race, distillery, Catts’ Tavern, Civil War entrenchments, West End Village, and the settlement of Cameron. Predictive modeling suggested the presence of prehistoric material near the project area’s streams; these areas were declared subject to testing prior to any construction. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for the sites mentioned above, Van Dorn Street Metro Station [44AX178], and Robert Portner Brewing Company [44AX196].) 

Eisenhower Avenue Earthwork Site/Van Dorn Street Metro Station (railroad infrastructure), 5690 Eisenhower Avenue, 44AX54 

During a prior survey for the Franconia-Springfield Metrorail line, archaeologists found a possible Confederate fortification and associated encampment. Phase II work, because of a proposed Metro station parking lot, dug up one lead bullet—the only indication that the site may have been occupied during the Civil War, though it was Union not Confederate—along with railroad artifacts like bolts, nuts, spikes, and a bracket. While there was no physical evidence to support a fortification or encampment, there were archaeological resources suggestive of a haul road or access ramp for the Manassas Gap Railroad. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley and Van Dorn Street Metro Station [44AX178].) 

Lowry, Sara 

“The Fort” Neighborhood/Fort Ward Historical Park, Old Grave Yard (cemetery), 4301 West Braddock Road, 44AX90 and 153 

The City of Alexandria’s ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey identified 38 possible unmarked burials in six known and potential cemetery and grave locations in “The Fort” (44AX90) and the Old Grave Yard (44AX153). “The Fort” was an historic African American neighborhood established on and around the Civil War Fort Ward, now Fort Ward Historical Park. “The Fort” dates from the Reconstruction period after the Civil War to the early 1960s when the park was created. The Old Grave Yard and other possible burial locations were selected based on documentary evidence and oral history. The survey area totaled approximately 37,500 square feet. GPR results assisted in identifying areas for archaeological testing in 2010. (Note: Researchers also should review the site report for Fort Ward [44AX90].)  

Lynch, Anna 

All volumes of the Compendium can be purchased online at The Alexandria Shop .

M-R

M

Maas, Anna

Maas, Anna, Dan Baicy and Boyd Sipe

Maas, Anna, Kathleen Kockel, and Penne Sandbeck

Maas, Anna and John P. Mullen

Maas. Anna and Jean Stoll

Magid, Barbara H. 

Magid, Barbara H. and Bernard K. Means 

Magid, Barbara H. and Carol Snow 

McCord, Theodore 

McElwain, Andrew

McElwain, Andrew and Alexandria Archaeology

  • Rest Sweet Rest: Documenting the African American Community Buried in Douglass Cemetery, 1895-1975. Alexandria Archaeology Publications Number #131, 2022.

Means, Bernard K. 

  • 2005 - Building a Bridge from the Past to the Future at Jones Point Park: Archaeological Discoveries of Alexandria, Virginia's American Indian Heritage through the Woodrow Wilson Bridge Projects at 44AX185.

Meyer, Richard 

  • 1991 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study: Architectural/ Historic Resources Determination of Effect Report. John Milner Associates, Inc. West Chester, Pennsylvania.

Meyer, Richard and Donna J. Seifert 

  • 1990 - Phase I Architectural/Historic Resources Survey for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study. John Milner Associates, Inc., West Chester, Pennsylvania.

Miller, David L. and Allan R. Westover 

Moon, Krystyn

Moon, Krystyn and Benjamin A. Skolnik

Morin, Edward, Anne Brockett, Jane Carolan, Mark Edwards, Jeffrey Harbison, Terry Klein, Cassandra Michaud and Justin Patton 

  • 2000 - Phase II Archeological Testing and Determination of Eligibility Documentation for Submittal to the Keeper of the National Register of Historic Places, Virginia Shipbuilding Corporation Site (44AX78) Alexandria, Virginia. URS Corporation, Bethesda, Maryland.

Morin, Edward and Jeffrey Harbison 

  • 2005 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project. Supplemental Environmental Assessment Archeological/Geomorphological Investigations Within Four Alternatives Proposed for Access and Parking Areas, Jones Point Park, Alexandria, Virginia. URS Corporation, Florence, New Jersey

Morton, Brown W. III 

Stabler-Leadbeater Apothecary Shop (apothecary shop), 105–107 South Fairfax Street, 44AX44 

This 1984 historic structure report documented the condition of the former apothecary shop now museum and gift shop. The report identified it among the oldest preserved apothecaries in the United States and the only apothecary in Virginia to operate continuously from the 18th–20th century (1796–1933). The structure survived the tests of time, albeit with some deterioration. This report made recommendations for rehabilitation and repair of the property. 

Moyar, Joanna T. 

Mullen, John P. 

Mullen, John P., Boyd Sipe, Christine Jirikowic, Johnna Flahive and Edward Johnson 

1514–1524 King Street, 1600 and 1602 King Street, 1602 Dechantal Street (possible relation to adjacent tavern; possible residence and slave jail; tenant residence; commercial/industrial site), 44AX202 

Archaeologists undertook a three-phase study of the 0.61-acre tract adjacent to the late 18th-/early 19th-century Virginia House Tavern, which may have used the site during this time. The property was used from at least the second quarter of the 19th century into the 20th with agricultural use circa 1820 or earlier. By 1851 there likely was a residence and slave jail. Between 1855–1857 the butcher-owner subdivided the property into five parcels and built row houses, possibly using materials salvaged from the brick slave jail. These were occupied into the 20th century primarily by tenants then utilized as retail and office space. Excavated were 32 features, including, from the early to mid 19th century, a cobble walkway or drain, several postholes, two wooden box conduits or drains, two bored log pipes, and a barrel pit and, from the late 19th century, a buried barrel (possibly a privy), several pits (possibly for barrel privies), postholes, and a refuse pit. Also found was a well with mixed late 19th- and 20th-century deposits thought to be a water pump. The mid-19th-century plumbing features may have been constructed by Union troops but more likely as part of a water system for the slave jail or by the rowhouse residents. 18th–20th-century domestic artifacts indicative of several dwellings and occupations included: ceramic and pipe bowl and stem fragments and pieces of glass, metal, bone, shell, leather, slate, and wood. Lithic flakes in the fill were secondary deposits and therefore not attributed to prehistoric occupation of the site. 

Mullen, John P. and Craig Rose 

Mullen, John P. and Curt Breckenridge 

  • 2007 - Archaeological Resource Management Plan for the Potomac Yard Property, Landbays E, G, H, I, J, K, L, and M, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Thunderbird Archaeology, Gainesville, Virginia. Report Part I. Report Part II. Appendices.

Mullen, John, Daniel Baicy, David Carroll and Edward Johnson

Mullen, John P. and David Carroll

Mullen, John P., David Carroll, and Daniel P. Wagner

Mullen, John P. and Edward Johnson 

Mullen, John P., Edward Johnson, and Annie McQuillan 

Mullen, John P. and Jeremy Smith 

Mullen, John P. and William P. Barse 

Mullen, John P., Anna Maas, Penny Sandbeck, Daniel Baicy and Kathleen Jockel

Myers, Suzita C. 

  • 2003 - The Potter’s Art: Salt-glazed Stoneware of 19th Century Alexandria. (Second edition.) Alexandria Archaeology Publications.
  • 1982 - Alexandria Salt-glazed Stoneware: A Study in Material Culture 1813-1876. Master’s Thesis, University of Maryland.

N

Niculescu, Tatiana.

O

O'Donnell, Darby and Kim Zawacki 

325 South Whiting Street (possible prehistoric area; possible agricultural and/or domestic area) 

Despite the presence of several prehistoric and agricultural/domestic sites discovered previously within a mile of the project area, Phase I study of the two highly disturbed acres yielded no findings. A computer-generated map from the 1980s showed “ruins” on the eastern edge, but landscaping in the interim obliterated evidence of any structural remains. 

Otter, Ed 

Circle Terrace Hospital (residence; hospital), 900 block of Virginia Avenue, Braddock Heights 

Archaeologists performed research and shovel testing at the site of a new oxygen storage facility for the hospital. Records indicated that the Braddock Heights subdivision—the location of the project area—accommodated a house in the 19th century then probably a tenant house in the late 19th century as well as the large home of Dr. David Newton Rust, built in 1888. In the 1940s, the last Rust house occupant sold it to Circle Terrace, Inc., who incorporated it into the hospital. The house was demolished in the 1960s as the complex expanded. The archives did not include exact locations for the earliest residences and no artifacts were found. 

P

Paonessa, Laurie J., Simone Moffett and Elizabeth Crowell 

Whole Foods/Royalton Project (residence; tenant residence; bakery; grocery store; automobile dealership; automotive paint shop; shopping center), 1700 block of Duke Street, 44AX190 

In 2003 archaeologists accomplished two phases of study—research then digging—on the site’s approximately 1.65 acres prior to the imminent construction of a Whole Foods and residences on top of what had been a shopping center and parking lot from 1959–2002. Construction also was to include the removal of a grassy island, sidewalk widening, installation of underground utilities, and surface grading. During the initial phase, archaeologists established a complete chain of title, recording the various functions of the site over time: first, residential, including tenant occupation, then commercial, beginning with a bakery in the late 18th to early 19th century, then, by 1924, a grocery store, followed by a automobile dealership, automotive paint shop, and lastly the shopping center. John West, Jr. sold a lot to John Limerick in 1797, which he then subdivided. The larger lot became 1724 Duke St., the smaller one 1718. A house stood on the 1724 lot by 1804, but there was no good record of a house on the smaller lot until 1902. Excavation in the mid-1980s of the 1100–1900 blocks of Duke Street recovered the remnants of two late 18th- to early 19th-century buildings—one frame, one brick (identified as the Bontz site, 44AX103)—plus 19th- and 20th-century artifacts. Then, in 1988, excavation revealed fence postholes but more notably 24,000 ceramic and glass artifacts, pipe fragments, buttons, coins, marbles, and brick, dating to the late 18th/early 19th through the mid-20th century. Digging in 2003 exposed a 20th-century cellar, a brick wall that was probably part of a 19th-century house foundation, a 19th-century brick drain, and a brick-lined well similar to those built in the 19th-century along with 20th-century domestic artifacts. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, including 44AX103 and 105, Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company, and Spring Garden.) 

Pappas, Madeleine, Janice G. Artemel and Elizabeth A. Crowell 

Alexandria Federal Courthouse (American Indian tool-making site; wagon yard; residence, including possible slave/tenant; farm; possible Civil War barracks and hospital or encampment and staging area; tavern; possible rail yard; scrap metal company; landfill), 401 Courthouse Square, 44AX164 

Before constructing the U.S. Federal Courthouse, archaeologists completed two phases of investigation, located on property owned by the Oliver Carr Company and Norfolk Southern Railroad. Phase I documented the use and chain of title of the site from the late 18th through the first half of the 19th century, surmising that it perhaps was a Civil War encampment and staging area, though more likely the site of a barracks and hospital, then returning to residential and agricultural use after the war.  In 1897, Southern Railroad purchased property that included the site, erecting rail yards and shops circa 1900 that may have extended into the site. In the 1950s, the railroad divided the land into leased parcels; the future courthouse site was occupied by the Alexandria Scrap Corporation, its tin press and temporary office buildings until the 1970s. There were landfill operations during this period, too. Phase II excavation turned up prehistoric artifacts, such as a base from a projectile point and other lithics, indicating a Late Archaic and Woodland period (3000 B.C.–1600 A.D.) camp for the procurement and manufacture of tools. Artifacts from the late 18th to the first half of the 19th century showed ongoing residential refuse disposal suggestive of a small residence or outbuilding, maybe that of tenant farmers, workers, or possibly enslaved people. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX164.) 

Papson, Ryun 

 

Parker, Adam K.

Parson, Kimberly and Caleb Christopher 

Bloxham Cemetery/Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project/Alexandria Business Center/Witter Street Recreation Complex (American Indian basecamp and tool-making site; residence; cemetery), area bounded by Witter Street, Telegraph Road, CSX Railroad, and Roth Street, 44AX127 and 128 

Before the development of an athletic field complex, archaeologists performed a Phase II assessment of the property’s two previously investigated sites: 44AX127 and 44AX128. 127 actually was two sites in one: an Early Woodland prehistoric site consisting of small, short-term encampments (183 artifacts found, mostly from plowzone, and a possible hearth) and a mid- to late 19th-century field scatter consistent with the Bloxham family occupation of the site from 1795 nearly through the 19th century (392 artifacts found, almost entirely from disturbed contexts). Work within 128 was limited to the Bloxham family cemetery where 12 grave shafts, including one brick burial vault, were discovered. After determining the cemetery boundaries, the site was backfilled without excavating the graves. Archaeologists recommended creating a 10-foot buffer around the east, south, and west lines of the cemetery and a 45-foot buffer on the north end (this area was not fully delineated) prior to beginning construction activities. (The City of Alexandria later marked the 12 grave shafts and leveled the area.) (Note: This area was investigated several times over a fifteen-year period. Researchers also should review the three earlier site reports for 44AX127 and 128.)  

Parsons Engineering Science 

Robert Portner Brewing Company (brewery), 600 block of North St. Asaph Street, 44AX196 

Robert Portner began construction on his brewery in 1868, and the refinements and renovations—in order to keep up with ever-changing brewing technology—continued until operations were reduced in 1916. The plant closed by 1921. The various construction episodes were visible in the archaeological record. Phase I work beneath the site’s parking lots resulted in 15 architectural features, including the beer vault, walls from several associated features, and two wells or privies. Phase II excavation unearthed 41 features, including foundations for the two brewhouses (1868 and 1894), two brick shafts, which were cisterns for water storage, beer vault foundations, and the beer cellar floor. There were very few artifacts: a large iron strap hinge, wall or beam anchor, some steel and copper pipe, and a wooden box conduit containing insulated wires associated with the brewery’s electrical system. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley and Shuter’s Hill Brewery/Klein’s Brewery/Englehardt’s Brewery/Carlyle Project Area II-B [44AX35]. Additionally, researchers should read Robert Portner and his Brewing Company by Timothy J. Dennée). 

Petraglia, Michael D., Catharine B. Toulmin and Madeleine Pappas 

Bloxham Cemetery/Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project/Alexandria Business Center/Witter Street Recreation Complex (American Indian basecamp or tool-making site; cemetery), area bounded by Witter Street, Telegraph Road, CSX Railroad, and Roth Street, 44AX127 and 128 

Archaeological excavation of the 22-acre tract unearthed stone tools along the streambeds, confirming prehistoric occupation of the site. Excavation also revealed a footstone marked “W.H.W.” and skeletal remains, thought to belong to William H. Whaley, stage coach owner and husband of Jane E. (Bloxham) Whaley, circa 1850. (The City of Alexandria later reinterred these remains and leveled the area.) (Note: This area was investigated several times over a fifteen-year period. Researchers also should review the three other site reports for 44AX127 and 128—two prior and one later.)  

Pfanstiehl, Cynthia, Elizabeth A. Crowell, Eugene Goodman, Donald Hull, Edith Baird and Ray Wood 

Mark Center/Winkler Tract (American Indian tool-making site), 1801–1901 Beauregard Street, 44AX124

In surveying the site, archaeologists unearthed prehistoric artifacts and glass vessel fragments of recent origin. Subsequent excavation recovered numerous lithic fragments suggestive of an American Indian tool-making site, indicating a nearby base camp. (Note: Researchers also should review the three later reports for Mark Center.)  

Pfanstiehl, Cynthia, Heather Crowl, Richard O'Connor and Rachel Grant 

Virginia Glass Company/Carlyle Project Block D (bottle factory), 1820–1828 Duke Street, 44AX181 

The Norfolk Southern Corporation funded this extensive investigation of its Carlyle Project Block D, formerly the Virginia Glass Co. bottle factory from the late 19th to the early 20th century. It was the only bottle-making company in Virginia in the 1890s. Though it survived an 1895 fire, another one in 1916 shuttered the plant. The factory never became fully mechanized at a time when mechanization was turning into the norm. Phase I testing determined that some features of the factory were intact; Phase II/III investigation unearthed them, namely foundations, furnaces, lehrs, and a brick ventilation system, as well as bottles, other glass objects, and glass-making tools. The remains of the factory were preserved under Carlyle Park. 

Pfanstiehl, Cynthia, Holly Heston and Elizabeth A. Crowell 

Bloxham Cemetery/Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project/Alexandria Business Center Areas A and X/Witter Street Recreation Complex (cemetery; railyard), area bounded by Witter Street, Telegraph Road, CSX Railroad, and Roth Street, 44AX127 and 128 

Archaeologists performed testing on part of the site (Area A) affected by the construction of the Business Center, uncovering no significant prehistoric or historic materials, mostly just charred wood and iron—byproducts of railroad operation. Additionally, archaeologists urged archival research and excavation of the portion of the site (Area X) occupied by the Bloxham cemetery and some Fruit Growers Express activity. (Note: This area was investigated several times over a fifteen-year period. Researchers also should review the three other site reports for 44AX127 and 128—one prior and two later.) 

Pfanstiehl, Cynthia, Edward Otter and Marilyn Harper 

Bloxham Cemetery/Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project/Alexandria Business Center/Witter Street Recreation Complex (possible American Indian basecamp or tool-making site; residence; cemetery; mill race; rail yard), area bounded by Witter Street, Telegraph Road, CSX Railroad, and Roth Street, 44AX127 and 128 

Archaeologists surveyed the site, finding it a likely location for prehistoric occupation, specifically the areas surrounding streambeds. Research and survey also turned up residences at the site dating from the early 19th century (or maybe as early as the late 17th century), including the Bloxham family occupation from 1795 nearly through the 19th century. The Bloxham lot incorporated a cemetery. In addition, during this period, a mill race ran through the site. Lastly, since the mid-19th century, the site functioned primarily as a rail yard. The Fruit Growers Express company took ownership of the rail lines in the 1920s, giving the site its “Fruit Growers” nickname. Follow-up testing and excavation were recommended. (Note: This area was investigated several times over a fifteen-year period. Researchers also should review the three later site reports for 44AX127 and 128.) 

Prothro, Kimberly 

  • 1989 - The Strand (204-210 Strand Street): A Report Prepared for Holland and Associates. Traceries, Inc., Washington, D.C.

Pulliam, Ted

R

Reeder, Ruth and Paul Nasca

Regan, Peter

Revis, Sara 

Rose, Craig 

S-Z

S

Sanders, Suzanne and Kathleen M. Child 

Sanders, Suzanne L., Martha R. Williams, and Lori Ricard 

Schneider, Kathleen Jockel

Schneider, Kathleen Jockel, John P. Mullen, and David Carroll

Schreiber, Abby

Schweigert, Kurt P. 

  • 1998 - West End . Prepared for Norfolk Southern Corporation (Carlyle Project).

West End Village/Carlyle Project, approximately 1500–2400 blocks of Duke Street 

The Norfolk Southern Corporation provided this compilation of the archaeology and history of the West End—the historic unincorporated community outside Alexandria’s city limits, annexed in 1915. It served as the culmination of Norfolk Southern’s support of archaeological investigation for its Carlyle Project, which included the West End Village that stood in the 18th century. 

Seifert, Donna J., Ph.D. 

  • 1992 - Phase Ia Archeological Assessment for the Consolidation of the Naval Systems Commands, Alexandria and Arlington County, Virginia. John Milner Associates, Inc., West Chester, Pennsylvania.

Seifert, Donna J., Ph.D., Cecile G. Glendening and Walton Owen 

Spring Garden/Southern Plaza/Old Town Village (rail yard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War; residence), four blocks bounded by Duke, Henry, Wilkes, and Payne streets 

The planned construction of a mixed-use development precipitated archaeological investigation. The four-block area included a portion of the 19th-century Orange and Alexandria Railroad, taken over by the United States Military Railroad during the Civil War. Up until the early 20th century, the area served two purposes: industrial and residential. After 1912, the Southern Railway had sole possession of the land. Archaeologists recommended further study, including archival research, though they noted that, because USMRR structures were frame and occupation temporary, evidence of the military presence would be near nil. (Note: Researchers also should review the other report for Spring Garden and the reports for 1100–1900 Duke Street, including 44AX103 and 105, Fannon Petroleum Fuel Company, and Whole Foods/Royalton Project [44AX190].) 

Seifert, Donna J. and Kerri Culhane 

Duke Street Tannery/Marriott Residence Inn (butchery/slaughterhouse; tannery; store; possible tenant residence), 1456 Duke Street, 44AX188 

The proposed erection of a Marriott Residence Inn prompted archaeologists to complete two phases of investigation: documentary study followed by excavation. The site’s location in the West End, an unincorporated community outside the city limits until its 1915 annexation, made it the prime location for slaughtering and tanning. The Duke Street Tannery/Tanyard operated from circa 1796 to the mid-19th century, burning down in 1853. Key to the development of the West End was the village’s location on Little River Turnpike (now Duke Street) and Hooff’s Run, a navigable waterway with access to Alexandria’s port (via Hunting Creek). Archival research confirmed that the site gave way to commercial and residential functions after its tanning days. A two-story frame store (1456 Duke St.) appeared in 1902 and 1921 maps; the 1921 map also showed an adjacent brick house thought to be the tenement illustrated on an 1845 map. Since the 1930s, the store structure sustained several additions and alterations, making the discovery of ground disturbance during excavation likely. Archaeologists found no significant artifacts or features. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX188.)  

Shephard, Steven J. 

Shephard, Steven J. and Francine W. Bromberg 

  • 2006 - The Quaker Burying Ground in Alexandria , Virginia: A Study of Burial Practices of the Religious Society of Friends. Daring Experiments: Issues and Insights about Utopian Communities, T. Van Buren, editor. Historical Archaeology 40 (1): 57-88.

Shephard, Steven J. and Pamela J. Cressey, Eds. 

Shomette, Donald G. 

This report provided a history of Alexandria’s maritime past, including its founding by merchants and its prominence as a commercial center then its decline. Following the historical discussion was an investigation of the city’s underwater archaeological resources. (Note: Researchers also should review the report for Waterfront. Additionally, researchers should read Donald G. Shomette’s 1995 updated publication of the same title.)

Sipe, Boyd 

“The Hump” Neighborhood/James Bland Homes/Parker-Gray Historic District (residence, including possible slave/tenant/freed black/contraband; farm; housing project), 918 North Columbus Street, 44AX211 and 212 

The property on which the James Bland Homes were built in the 1950s—now in the Parker-Gray Historic District—belonged to members of the Alexander family from the late 17th–early 18th century. Their slaves or tenants also may have lived or worked on the property. Between the late 18th and mid-19th century, other prominent Alexandrians owned portions of the property; slaves or tenants, including freed blacks/contrabands, also may have been present during these occupations. Several buildings appeared near or within the site on Civil War-era maps. No archaeological evidence of these structures was found during the Phase I investigation. Archaeologists put forth the possibility that refugees fleeing slavery settled in the project area in shanty towns during the Civil War. Residential development occurred in the second half of the 19th century, and some of the area became known as “The Hump.” Most residents during this period were black, but, by the turn of the 20th century, half of the Hump (and 70 percent of the project area) was black. By the early 1940s, “slum clearance” had begun in Alexandria. Homes were condemned and a wartime trailer camp established. Then, in 1954, the first Bland Homes were built. The neighborhood, including the public housing project, became almost entirely African American. Excavation revealed significant ground disturbance and filling, but archaeologists were able to identify two sites: 44AX211, a scatter of historic refuse contained within a plowzone with ceramic, glass, metal, bone, and shell artifacts from the late 18th/early 19th–early 20th century and two features that were not explored fully, and 44AX212, an area of preserved brickwork dating to the early 20th century or earlier. Findings elsewhere in the project area included ceramic, glass, metal, bone, and shell artifacts plus five prehistoric artifacts; all of these findings emanated from secondary deposits fill contexts, post-dating the abandonment of the site in the 1940s. Construction monitoring and Phase II work were recommended in specific places. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX211 and 212.) 

Sipe, Boyd, with Francine W. Bromberg, Steven Shephard, Pamela J. Cressey, and Eric Larsen

  • 2014 - The Contrabands and Freedmen Cemetery Memorial, City of Alexandria, Virginia. Archaeological Data Recovery at Site 44AX0179. Thunderbird Archaeology, a division of Wetland Studies, Gainesville, VA and Alexandria Archaeology, Office of Historic Alexandria. Appendices.

Sipe, Boyd and David S. Rotenstein

Sipe, Boyd and Kimberly Snyder 

“The Hump” Neighborhood/James Bland Homes/Parker-Gray Historic District (residence, including possible slave/tenant/freed black/contraband; farm; housing project), 918 North Columbus Street, 44AX211 and 212 

The property on which the James Bland Homes were built in the 1950s—now in the Parker-Gray Historic District—belonged to members of the Alexander family from the late 17th–early 18th century. Their slaves or tenants also may have lived or worked on the property. Between the late 18th and mid-19th century, other prominent Alexandrians owned portions of the property; slaves or tenants, including freed blacks/contrabands, also may have been present during these occupations. Several buildings appeared near or within the site on Civil War-era maps. No archaeological evidence of these structures was found during the Phase I investigation. Archaeologists put forth the possibility that refugees fleeing slavery settled in the project area in shanty towns during the Civil War. Residential development occurred in the second half of the 19th century, and some of the area became known as “The Hump.” Most residents during this period were black, but, by the turn of the 20th century, half of the Hump (and 70 percent of the project area) was black. By the early 1940s, “slum clearance” had begun in Alexandria. Homes were condemned and a wartime trailer camp established. Then, in 1954, the first Bland Homes were built. The neighborhood, including the public housing project, became almost entirely African American. Excavation revealed significant ground disturbance and filling, but archaeologists were able to identify two sites: 44AX211, a scatter of historic refuse contained within a plowzone with ceramic, glass, metal, bone, and shell artifacts from the late 18th/early 19th–early 20th century and two features that were not explored fully, and 44AX212, an area of preserved brickwork dating to the early 20th century or earlier. Findings elsewhere in the project area included ceramic, glass, metal, bone, and shell artifacts plus five prehistoric artifacts; all of these findings emanated from secondary deposits fill contexts, post-dating the abandonment of the site in the 1940s. Construction monitoring and Phase II work were recommended in specific places. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX211 and 212.)  

Skolnik, Benjamin A.

Slaughter, Bernard W., George L. Miller and Meta Janowitz 

  • 2001 - Archaeological Investigations to Define the Boundaries of Freedmen's Cemetery (44 AX179), Within the Property owned by the Virginia Department of Transportation Alexandria, Virginia. The Potomac Crossing Consultants.

Slusser, H. Robert 

Smith, Jeremy

Smith, Jeremy and David Carroll 

Smith, Jeremy, Thomas Cuthbertson and Boyd Sype

Snow, Carol 

  • 1989 - Alexandria Archaeology Conservation Survey: Report on a Collection Survey Conducted June 6 - August 25, 1989.

Soldo, David J. and Martha R. Williams 

Corbett and O’Neal Brickyard/Gunston Hall Apartments (brickyard), 900 block of South Washington Street 

Phase I investigation of the block bounded by Green, Washington, Church, and Columbus streets, encompassing approximately 2.3 acres, included archival research, survey, testing, and lab analysis. Prior to redevelopment of the project area, archaeologists worked to identify any graves associated with the adjacent circa 1864–1869 Freedmen’s Cemetery and remains of the Corbett and O’Neal brickyard, which occupied the block after 1875. Archaeologists came across no evidence of surviving grave shafts nor any intact features related to the brickyard. Thus the report recommended no further study there; however, it did suggest that work continue along the Church Street perimeter of the property. A 2003 appendix to the report detailed this inquiry. No intact deposits or features were found, eliminating the need for future investigation. 

Stantec Consulting Services Inc.

Stevens, J. Sanderson 

  • 1991 - Phase Ib Archaeological Survey for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study. John Milner Associates, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia.

Stevens, J. Sanderson, Alice C. Crampton, Diane E. Halsall, Elizabeth A. Crowell and J. Lee Cos, Jr. 

  • 1996 - Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project Improvement Study: Integrated Cultural Resources Technical Report. Architectural/Historic Resources Identification and Determination of Effect Report and Phase Ia and Ib Terrestrial and Underwater Archaeological Investigations. Vol II (Appendices). Parsons Engineering Science, Inc., Fairfax, Virginia

Stevens, J. Sanderson, Diane E. Halsall and Ronald J. Bowers 

  • 1997 - Addendum Woodrow Wilson Bridge Improvement Study Background Research and Remote Sensing Investigations Freedmen's or Contraband Cemetery (44AX179) Alexandria, Virginia. Parsons Engineering Science, Inc., Fairfax, Virginia.

Straka, Jeffrey and Michael Clem 

Weicking Property (Civil War encampment), 701 and 702 (Area B), 704 and 705 (Area A) Arell Court 

Phase I evaluation of four lots to be developed into single-family houses resulted in Civil War and other historic artifacts, including a silver German coin and 0.58 caliber Minie balls, but no features. Recovered during construction monitoring were several bullets, a New York regiment button, and an axe head, among other finds. Archaeologists established a connection between this property and two previously identified Civil War encampment sites—44AX193 on N. Quaker Ln. and 44AX195 (Quaker Ridge)—suggesting that 193, 195, and the project area belonged to the same larger Union encampment. The slope of the land and the wet soil conditions discouraged future fieldwork, not to mention the discovery that the area had been heavily collected in the past. (Note: Researchers also should review the site reports for 206 North Quaker Lane [44AX193] and Quaker Ridge [44AX195].)  

Swain, Emily, Paul P. Kreisa, Eric Griffitts, Jacqueline M. McDowell, Geri J. Knight-Iske and Nancy L. Powell.

T

Tercha, Jason

Terrie, Philip

Thunderbird Archaeology

Tolson, Sarah 

Carlyle House (residence), 121 North Fairfax Street, 44AX3 

Earnest Wagar undertook the reconstruction of the 1753 house in 1906 as a house museum. It fell into decline until 1974 when the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority preserved it to the period of John Carlyle’s lifetime (mid- to late 18th century) as a historic site within a public park. The NVRPA plan of action involved demolishing the mid-19th-century Mansion House Hotel on the property and remodeling the adjacent Bank of Alexandria. Demolishing the hotel brought the previously obscured house into view. The office and kitchen dependencies were demolished previously in 1855. This report detailed the house’s construction and design influences and offered a history of the property and house itself, including its remodelings and occupations. Results of the archaeological investigation included such features as well shafts and privies holding ceramics, glasswares, bottles, and other artifacts dating to or close to the lifetime of Carlyle. These emanated from both the house property and the Mansion House Hotel/Bank of Alexandria. A separate draft archaeological report presented a history of the site along with a study and catalogue of the artifacts. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX3.) 

Traum, Sarah, Joseph Balicki and Brian Corle 

L’Ouverture Hospital/Shiloh Baptist Church (residence; slave jail; Civil War soldiers’ prison and freed black/contraband hospital and barracks; African American residence; black Baptist church), 1323 Duke Street 

Prior to putting an addition onto this historic structure for senior housing, archaeologists studied the 3,500-square-foot lot, which had been part of a much larger parcel. On this larger parcel stood Robert Young’s three-story brick house (1315), which expanded into the Franklin and Armfield slave-trading business. Other slave traders then operated here until Union forces took the property in 1861. Between late 1863 and early 1864, the Union Army built L’Ouverture Hospital for non-white soldiers and civilians in the block surrounding the slave jail/soldiers’ prison; it functioned through 1867. One of the long barrack-tent structures occupied by recovering soldiers and civilians stood on this lot. In subdividing the parcel, the southwest corner (1323) was sold to an African American laborer in 1884. The house he built passed through a few hands until Shiloh Baptist Church bought it in 1957. This report noted the intertwined history of L’Ouverture Hospital and Shiloh; the congregation met in the hospital mess house before the first church went up in 1865. Shovel tests revealed the original ground surface to be gone, eliminating the need for further examination of the study area. 

Traum, Sarah and Charles E. Goode

W

Wagner, Daniel P. 

Dash Bus Facility, 3000–3100 Business Center Drive 

Pedological and geoarchaeological studies aimed to pinpoint the project area’s original ground surface within the current, artificially constructed landscape. Soil corings showed that the area had sustained significant ground disturbances and filling, making the finding of any cultural resources—especially in situ—nearly impossible. 

  • 2003 - Sedimentological and Geomorphological Interpretations of Borings along a Planned Outfall Pipe at the Potomac Greens Development in Alexandria, Virginia. Geo-Sci Consultants, Inc. University Park, Maryland.
  • 2000 - Pedology, Geomorphology, and Landscape Reconstruction at Jones Point Park in Alexandria, Virginia. Geo-Sci Consultants, Inc.

Walker, Mark K., Elizabeth A. Crowell, Madeleine Pappas, Jesse Daugherty and Christopher Martin 

Alfred Street Baptist Church/“The Bottoms” Neighborhood (African American residence; first black Baptist church north of Richmond, VA), 313 South Alfred Street, 44AX161 

Archaeological survey and testing of the site revealed a builder’s trench for the mid-19th-century church and cultural remains, which provided some insight into African American life in “The Bottoms” neighborhood. An architectural review of the church uncovered unusual features, shedding light on the building techniques of the day. Construction monitoring wrapped up work at the site, which resulted in the discovery of a well. 

Walker, Mark K. and Timothy J. Dennée 

Shuter’s Hill Brewery/Klein’s Brewery/Englehardt’s Brewery/Carlyle Project Area II-B (brewery; tavern), 2016 Duke Street, 44AX35 

In 1979, during the bulldozing of the site’s commercial and government warehouses, the ventilation shaft of Shuter’s Hill Brewery (1858–1892) was discovered. Despite a fire in 1893 and subsequent demolitions, archaeologists found additional brewery and tavern remains: the brewery basement, partially filled remains of the lager beer cellar, and partially collapsed and filled passageway connecting the two. Excavations of these ten acres of Carlyle Project Area II-B yielded 6,792 artifacts: architectural elements like brick and wood pieces, flat copper alloy and iron fragments, floor tile, synthetic tile, window glass, drainpipe bits, hinges, nails, agateware doorknobs, and personal items, including a buckle, comb, buttons, and pipe stems. Many artifacts related to the tavern: bottles mostly bearing the embossed names of breweries other than Shuter’s (like Robert Portner Brewery), stoneware bottles and fragments for ginger ale or mineral water, wine bottles and whiskey flasks, and glass beer mug and tumbler fragments. Shuter’s Brewery, also called Klein’s Brewery and Englehardt’s Brewery, was probably the earliest lager beer brewery in Virginia and the largest Virginia brewery of the Civil War period. This site report stressed Shuter’s standing as one of a few American breweries with an intact mason beer cellar studied by archaeologists, the best preserved brewery site in Alexandria or even the region, and one of the few brewery sites remaining in the country from pre-Civil War lager-brewing days. This document also incorporated accounts of the history and techniques of early brewing in America. Note: Unrelated finds included the remains of late 19th- and 20th-century tenements and rental houses, a late 19th- and 20th-century glass factory, and even a single lithic flake. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for Robert Portner Brewing Company [44AX196] and Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley.) 

Walker, Mark K. and Marilyn Harper 

Potomac Yard (possible prehistoric area; residence, including tenant; farm; possible cemetery; canal; rail yard; United States Military Railroad, Civil War; possible rail/train station) 

Archival study of the project area, thought to have been settled in the 17th–18th century, documented several periods and uses of the property. Archaeologists suggested the possibility of prehistoric usage of the area. There were three agricultural occupations: first, by a tenant farmer; second, by Preston plantation of the Alexander family, which sustained troop occupation during the Civil War; and, third, by the Fendall family farm. The Alexander and Fendall properties had accompanying family cemeteries, though the former’s burials were moved to Pohick Church in 1922; archaeologists recommended testing for remaining burials. The late-19th-century suburban neighborhood of St. Asaph’s Junction, with its associated railroad station, was also in this area. Archaeologists assessed the potential of the station’s foundations surviving as low but possible. The project area also had major transportation uses. The Alexandria Canal (1843–1887) made its way through most of Potomac Yard before turning east to the city. The area also played a role in rail transport. Its first line—Alexandria and Washington Railroad—was completed in 1857 and used by the United States Military Railroad during the Civil War. By the turn of the 20th century, it contained probably the largest railway classification yard in the U.S.—Potomac Yard—interchanging and classifying freight for five, then six, railroad companies—the first such yard in the country. This report included discussion of the study area’s architectural resources, such as the bunkhouse and engine house—the only two structures likely dating to the time of the original rail yard. The report also mentioned the possibility of finding the archaeological remains of other structures as well as rail lines, shops, etc. (Note: Researchers also should review the two other reports for Potomac Yard.) 

More on Archaeology at Potomac Yard.  

Walker, Mark K., Madeleine Pappas, John Bedell, Janice Artemel and Heidy Fogel 

Alexandria Federal Courthouse (American Indian tool-making site; wagon yard; residence, including possible slave/tenant; farm; possible Civil War barracks and hospital or encampment and staging area; tavern; possible rail yard; scrap metal company; landfill), 401 Courthouse Square, 44AX164 

Before constructing the U.S. Federal Courthouse, archaeologists completed two phases of investigation, located on property owned by the Oliver Carr Company and Norfolk Southern Railroad. Phase I documented the use and chain of title of the site from the late 18th through the first half of the 19th century, surmising that it perhaps was a Civil War encampment and staging area, though more likely the site of a barracks and hospital, then returning to residential and agricultural use after the war.  In 1897, Southern Railroad purchased property that included the site, erecting rail yards and shops circa 1900 that may have extended into the site. In the 1950s, the railroad divided the land into leased parcels; the future courthouse site was occupied by the Alexandria Scrap Corporation, its tin press and temporary office buildings until the 1970s. There were landfill operations during this period, too. Phase II excavation turned up prehistoric artifacts, such as a base from a projectile point and other lithics, indicating a Late Archaic and Woodland period (3000 B.C.–1600 A.D.) camp for the procurement and manufacture of tools. Artifacts from the late 18th to the first half of the 19th century showed ongoing residential refuse disposal suggestive of a small residence or outbuilding, maybe that of tenant farmers, workers, or possibly slaves. (Note: Researchers also should review the other site report for 44AX164.) 

Walters, Patrick and Michael Clem 

Calvert Custom Homes (possible Civil War area), 3700, 3704, 3705, 3708, 3709, 3712, 3713, 3716, 3717, and 3721 Taft Avenue, 123 and 131 North Donelson Street 

Despite the presence of several Civil War sites within a half-mile of the project area, Phase I study of the 12 highly disturbed lots and adjacent stream restoration area yielded minimal findings. Some Civil War-era ammunition and metal objects, including a small brass buckle, suggested temporary occupation of the property by troops or troop movement in the area. 

Ward, Jeanne A. and John P. McCarthy 

Fox Haven Development (possible prehistoric area; residence; possible cemetery), 1820 North Howard Street 

Oral history dictated that at least three burials, dating to the late 1920s/early 1930s, of former inhabitants of the property were located in the project area. Archaeological investigation preceded development of the two-acre lot, which currently incorporated a frame house dating to the 1940s. Formerly there also was a frame garage and guest house. Digging turned up ceramics, bottle glass fragments, window glass, and nails—all apparently from the late 20th century or from unknown contexts. Archaeologists hypothesized that prehistoric materials would be present, but none were found. Areas not tested or excavated were recommended for construction monitoring. 

Christ Church Churchyard Wall Reconstruction (Anglican/Church of England then Episcopal church; cemetery), 118 North Washington Street, 44AX88 

Archaeologists monitored the removal of masonry elements on site during the reconstruction of a portion of the east churchyard wall, and identified, mapped, and photographed 12 grave shafts in the area of construction. (Identification errors resulted in the destruction of human remains and the loss of data in nine graves.) Also found was a brick footing, most likely associated with an earlier wall or structure removed to make way for this wall in the 1820s. There was no evidence of a mass grave of Confederate soldiers, despite an on-site monument’s assertion that one existed within the project area. Archaeologists contended that burials lay outside the churchyard, under the sidewalk and probably the roadway, meaning potentially hundreds of unmarked burials. During the reconstruction of a portion of the north churchyard wall, four grave shafts and a French drain materialized. By the west wall, there were 33 graves, represented by coffin remains or grave shafts. Four of these held human remains. (Researchers also should review the five other site reports for 44AX88—three prior and two later.) 

Watts, Gordon P., Jr. 

Waterfront, between Franklin and Oronoco streets and Oronoco Bay 

Prior to dredging and additional alteration of the waterfront, archaeologists performed underwater acoustic and magnetic remote sensing as well as a site identification survey. They found identifying historic anomalies in Oronoco Bay very difficult because of extensive modern debris. And, after locating seven potentially significant anomalies along the waterfront between Franklin Street and the bay, closer examination revealed these, too, were modern. Archaeologists called for monitoring of dredging and other ground disturbing activities. (Note: Researchers also should review Maritime Alexandria: An Evaluation of Submerged Cultural Resource Potentials at Alexandria, Virginia by Donald G. Shomette.)  

Wellman, Howard

Westover, Allan R. 

  • 1994 - Phase I Archaeological Survey for the Handicapped Access Elevator Project at Aspinwall Hall, The Episcopal Virginia Theological Seminary in Alexandria, Virginia. Tellus Consultants Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
  • 1991 - An Archaeological Survey Report on the Black Baptist Cemetery, Alexandria, Virginia. Tellus Consultants Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
  • 1991 - Archaeological Testing of Block I, CNS Development Project, Alexandria, Virginia. Tellus Consultants Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
  • 1990 -  A Preliminary Report of Historic Archaeological Investigations at 900 King Street, Alexandria, Virginia . Tellus Consultants, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota. 

900 King Street (store; coach house; residence), 44AX113 

The discovery of earthenware, interior-glazed syrup jars during demolition at this address precipitated archaeological excavation, which unearthed a brick-lined cellar filled with hundreds of sherds of syrup jars used in sugar refining, as well as other types of ceramics. A second feature, a refuse pit, included ceramic sherds, glass fragments, bone, fish scales, and metal fragments. More ceramic sherds, glass, bone, and metal objects emerged from a third test pit, tentatively identified as located in a parking area because of the presence of a hard-packed gravel layer. Archaeologists purported that the jars could have originated from the Moore-McLean Sugar House, located a half-block away from the site, or, if not directly deposited by the Sugar House, they also theorized that the sherds were discarded first at the Sugar House then re-deposited at this site when the Sugar House was torn down in 1839. William S. Moore, owner of the Sugar House from 1803/1804–1815, also owned this property from 1814–1825. (Note: Researchers also should review the site report for Sugar House [44AX96]. Additionally, researchers should read Barr, Cressey, and Magid’s 1994 article “How Sweet it Was: Alexandria’s Sugar Trade and Refining Business” in Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake.)  

Westover, Allan R. and David L. Miller 

  • 1991 - A Cultural Resource and Documentary Assessment for the Proposed CNS Partnership Development Project in Alexandria, Virginia. Tellus Consultants Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Wheelock, Perry Carpenter 

Williams, Martha R.  

 

Cameron Mills, Cameron Farm (mill; mill race; residence; farm), Mill Road at Eisenhower Avenue, 44AX112 and 182 

Development by Hoffman Management, Inc., precipitated two phases of archaeological work over three years. The project area contained three sites: West Family Cemetery (44AX183), which was written up in a separate report; Cameron Mills (44AX112); and Cameron Farm (44AX182). There were two adjoining mills within 112 by 1798; one mill continued to operate until 1919 (it was demolished nine years later), the other was sold to Alexandria Water Company in 1851, remaining in operation until the mid-20th century. It pumped water to Shuter’s Hill, which was stored in a still-extant brick reservoir, then fed by gravity via lead pipes into town. Excavated were foundations of both mill buildings, portions of a mill race, and a small pier on the old shoreline of Hunting Creek. 182 included multiple residential structures and farm buildings. Features and foundations of these survived in the archaeological record. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for West Family Cemetery [44AX183] and Cameron Run/Eisenhower Avenue Valley.)  

West Family Cemetery (cemetery), 2400 block of Mill Road, 44AX183 

Commercial development by Hoffman Management along the Eisenhower Avenue Valley Corridor precipitated the unearthing of the West family burial vault, seven associated burials, and seven graves outside the vault. Archaeologists monitored early excavation for utilities and discovered the brick burial vault. At least seven individuals had been buried in the vault, at least two of whom were interred in the 1780s. Osteological studies tentatively identified the remains of four individuals in the vault as Hugh West’s wife, Sybil, their son George and daughter Sybil, and her infant daughter. The Wests were founders of Alexandria and contributed greatly to early Virginia. The Wests’ large landholdings became West End Village. The burials outside the vault were in a poor state of preservation. Only four of the seven were preserved enough for study: two adult males, one adult female, and one infant. Archaeologists cautiously identified one of the males as an African American because of the discovery of a small crystal—common in African American burials. All were reinterred at Pohick Church. (Note: Researchers also should review the reports for Cameron Mills, Cameron Farm [44AX112 and 182] and 1100–1900 Duke Street, including 44AX103 and 105.)  

Williams, Martha R., Kathleen M. Child and Katie L. Kosack

Williams, Martha R. and David J. Soldo 

United States Patent and Trademark Office/Carlyle Project Block F (possible barn; rail yard; landfill), 600 Dulany Street though the site encompassed the four blocks bounded by Jamieson Avenue, Carlyle Street, Eisenhower Avenue, and Elizabeth Lane, 44AX189 

Archaeologists studied the 22.9-acre Carlyle Project area slated as the United States Patent and Trademark Office relocation site. The three southernmost blocks of the site (J, M, and N) contained no archaeological resources because of extensive grading, filling, and waste disposal. (Prior to its use by the Norfolk Southern Corporation, it functioned as a landfill.) Block F, however, included: imprints of railroad ties from the Cameron Yards Southern Railroad, which expanded its lines here in 1897 then removed them; the remains of at least two 20th-century railroad structures and the bases of several early 20th-century privies; timber framing, possibly from a 19th-century barn; what appeared to be the sides of a wooden wagon and a well-preserved wagon wheel and a piece of the base of a ceramic washbasin bearing a maker’s mark from the latter half of the 19th century. This site report noted the proximity of the project area to other sites known to have been occupied by the United States Military Railroad during the Civil War, though there was no evidence of this found on site during the 2002 investigation. 

Williams, Martha R. and David J. Soldo and Katherine Grandine 

United States Postal Service Memorial Station Branch (butchery/slaughterhouse; residence; wagon yard; possible tavern), 2200–2210 Duke Street 

When the U.S. Postal Service proposed to substantially expand its facility at the 1.3-acre project area, archaeologists commenced testing and archival research. Testing turned up only a modern wall and 20th-century debris because the stratigraphy had been so altered by prior construction projects. The archives proved more illuminating. Thomas Wigham operated a butchery on the property by 1802 when he sold the land to Thomas Watkins who, along with his descendants, continued to run the business until after the Civil War. Wigham’s property also included a dwelling and storehouse. Additionally, Zimmerman’s Tavern (1841–1849) was thought to be located somewhere within the area, though archival evidence of this was minimal. (Before the tavern there was a dwelling, various outhouses, and a wagon yard.) David Watkins, Thomas’ son, supposedly operated a slaughterhouse here from 1850 to at least 1874 (labeled “D. Watkins” on late 19th-century maps). 

Worthington, Michael J. and Jane I. Seiter

 

 

Z

Ziegler, Danica L. and Thomas W. Bodor 

Washington Quartermaster Depot/Cameron Station/Clermont Avenue Interchange (possible prehistoric site; World War II Army Quartermaster Depot), 4700–5200 blocks of Duke Street, 44AX158 

The proposed Clermont Avenue Interchange precipitated a historical survey of the site in which archaeologists suggested its nomination to the National Register of Historic Places. Covering 166 acres, the Army’s Washington Quartermaster Depot (later known as Cameron Station) comprised 22 structures, with 17 dating to the World War II period. A second building phase in the late 1950s/early 1960s raised a convenience store, guard house, pavilion, and service station. The World War II-era structures adhered to military construction standards for the time—concrete, brick, and frame rather than precious steel; buildings added after the war conformed to the style of these earlier structures. The focus of the facility was its eight warehouses, which in 1962 were converted into office space. The warehouse interiors were altered while the footprints were not, remaining essentially unchanged up to this 1991 study. In the 1990s the facility served as a commissary and Post Exchange System for Washington-area military personnel. Attached correspondence noted that the facility was to be closed and also that it was determined ineligible for the NRHP. The 1992 report testified to the site’s low archaeological potential because of the area’s large amounts of fill and historic wetlands environment. In 1998, because of a proposed housing development, geomorphological and archaeological investigations, specifically soil coring and shovel testing, took place, to find the historic grade beneath all the fill. From this horizon archaeologists found one piece of glass, one piece of metal, one quartzite flake, and two small debitage. The presence of these lithic artifacts, the site’s proximity to a stream, and the historic wetlands environment suggested that the area may have been occupied by American Indians in the past; however, the minimal findings and extent of disturbance at the site led archaeologists to conclude that no further study was warranted. (Note: Researchers also should review the report for Clermont Avenue Interchange.) 

Bryan Property/King’s Cloister (American Indian tool-making area; residence, including possible tenant; farm; possible barn/stable; domestic area), 2826 King Street 

Prior to residential development of the 4.5-acre project area, archaeologists carried out two phases of work. The first contained both prehistoric artifacts (lithics and ceramics) and 19th–20th-century domestic artifacts, primarily kitchen-related, while the second divulged architectural remains from a possible 19th-century barn or stable, thought to be an outbuilding of the extant 1820–1830 house. The second also had six features: two posts, two post molds, a drainage feature, and historic fill episode—all pointing to the existence of an outbuilding. Archival research revealed that the project area was once part of a larger farm or possibly plantation and that it at one time likely was occupied by a tenant.