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City of Alexandria, VA

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  • Live

    Make the most of Alexandria's outstanding quality of life with information and services of interest to residents.

    • Be Prepared

      Are you ready? Find resources and information to help residents, businesses and visitors to prepare for all types of emergencies, and to stay safe.

      • Flooding Preparedness
      • Snow and Ice Control
      • Hurricane Preparedness
      • Emergency Preparedness
      • Public Health Emergency
    • Community Life

      Learn more about pets and animals, schools and libraries, parks and farmers' markets, community gardens, and more.

      • Community Gardens
      • Farmers' Markets
      • Parks
      • Pets
      • Recreation
    • Get Involved

      There are many opportunities to get involved to help better the City of Alexandria. Opportunities include serving on a Board, Commission or Committee, providing input on a new City project or speaking at a City Council meeting.

      • Boards and Commissions
      • Civic Engagement Policy
      • City Academies
      • Community Emergency Response Team (CERT)
      • Speak at a Meeting
      • Volunteering
    • Getting Around

      Information on how to get to and through the City of Alexandria, including walking, biking, bus, rail, air, ridesharing, and more.

      • Bicycling in Alexandria
      • Bus and Rail
      • King Street Trolley
      • Parking in Alexandria
      • Street Maps
      • Taxis
      • Water Taxis
    • Historic Preservation

      Historic Alexandria is a treasure trove of early structures, artifacts, and records that creates a unique way of life for its citizens and provides enjoyment for thousands of people who visit this special community every year. The City continues to add resources to its collection of local and nationally designated historic districts.

      • Alexandria History
      • Board of Architectural Review
      • Historic Alexandria
      • Historic Districts
    • Licenses & Permits

      Find out whether a permit is required, the type of permit needed, fees involved, and what requirements are necessary for the activity you want to engage in Alexandria.

      • Building & Construction
      • Business Licenses
      • Health Permits
      • Marriage Licenses
      • Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV)
    • Parking

      Information about parking in the City of Alexandria, including parking options, enforcement, districts and permits.

      • Contest a Parking Ticket
      • Guest Parking Permits
      • Parking Permits
      • Parking Studies
      • Parking in Old Town
      • Pay a Parking Ticket
    • Public Health & Wellness

      Alexandria is committed to ensuring our residents thrive through physical, mental, and social health.

      • Aging & Adult Services
      • Domestic Violence
      • Environmental Health
      • Environmental Quality
      • Health Department
      • Health Clinics
      • Sexual Assault
      • Substance Abuse Prevention
      • Substance Abuse Services
      • Teen Pregnancy Prevention
      • Teen Wellness Center
      • Women's Initiatives
    • Public Safety & Courts

      Agencies and programs that help maintain our safety and overall quality of life. These links contain information about the City of Alexandria's law enforcement agencies and public safety organizations, courts and judicial system.

      • Fire Department
      • Police Department
      • Sheriff's Office
      • Circuit Court
      • Clerk of Circuit Court
      • General District Court
      • J&DR Court
      • Court Service Unit
    • Public Works

      Learn more about how the City maintains streets, sidewalks, bridges, and other infrastructure in the City.

      • Bridge Maintenance
      • Paving and Potholes
      • Sewer Maintenance
      • Street Sweeping
    • Real Estate & Taxes

      The City collects car and real estate taxes, maintains tax relief programs and assesses property values. Taxes can be paid in a variety of ways including online, by phone and by mail.

      • Payments
      • Personal Property/Car Tax
      • Real Estate Assessments
      • Real Estate Tax
      • Tax Guide
      • Tax Relief
    • Schools & Libraries

      Did you know that ACPS is one of the most diverse school systems in the country? Our students come from more than 80 different countries, speak more than 60 languages, and represent a myriad of ethnic and cultural groups. The Alexandria Library is an educational, user-oriented service institution providing free public access to recorded knowledge and ideas.

      • Alexandria City Public Schools (ACPS)
      • Alexandria Library
      • Child Care
      • Higher Learning
      • Out of School Time Programs
    • Social Services

      The City provides public assistance as a safety net for individuals and families, including help with homelessness prevention, food, rent, utilities, medical coverage and prescriptions, job training and placement assistance, and much more.

      • Aging & Adult Services
      • Child Care Assistance
      • Homeless Services
      • Housing Resources
      • Mentoring Programs
      • Military & Veteran Services
    • Trash & Recycling

      Find information on the City's refuse, recycling and yard waste collection programs.

      • Recycling
      • Refuse Collection
      • Yard Waste
    • Utilities

      The City of Alexandria does not operate any public utilities. The following companies are the primary providers of their respective service:

      • Cable TV (Comcast / Xfinity)
      • Drinking Water (Virginia American Water)
      • Electricity (Dominion Energy)
      • Natural Gas (Washington Gas)
      • Sewage/Water Treatment (Alex Renew)
      • Wired Telephone (Verizon)
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  • Play

    Whether you live here or are just visiting, Alexandria is a great place to shop, dine, take in the arts, get outdoors, and just have fun.

    • About Alexandria

      If you are looking for small-town charm and big-city amenities, Alexandria is the place to find them. Alexandria has a fascinating history, and many of its historic buildings are still preserved today. The City's many historic homes, churches, businesses, and museums allow residents and visitors alike to experience the past that makes it the charming town it is today.

      • Alexandria's History
      • Demographics & Statistics
      • Maps & GIS
      • Visit Alexandria
    • Arts & Culture

      Through engaging the community, encouraging participation, and facilitating access to arts and culture, the City builds a vibrant community for its residents, workers, and visitors.

      • City Concerts
      • City Events
      • Historic Property Rentals
      • Museums & Historic Sites
      • Office of Historic Alexandria
      • Office of the Arts
    • Entertainment

      Find events and activities, shops and restaurants, concerts and performances, arts and culture, historic attractions, parks and libraries, farmers' markets, and more.

      • City Concerts
      • City Events
      • Office of the Arts
      • Visit Alexandria: Things to Do
    • Getting Around

      Information on how to get to and through the City of Alexandria, including walking, biking, bus, rail, air, ridesharing, and more.

      • Bicycling in Alexandria
      • Bus & Rail
      • King Street Trolley
      • Parking in Alexandria
      • Street Maps
      • Taxis
      • Water Taxis
    • Museums & Historic Sites

      Alexandria is a desirable location to live, work and play. The City owns many of the premier historic sites in Alexandria and it is charged with the conservation, interpretation and promotion of these links to the past.

      • City Museums
      • Historic Sites & Attractions
      • Office of Historic Alexandria
    • Parks & Recreation

      Alexandria is an active community that offers more than 900 acres of parks and dedicated public space, and a wide variety of neighborhood and recreation centers, pools, dog parks, farmers' markets, waterfront activities and more.

      • Classes & Camps
      • Dog Parks
      • Facility & Park Rentals
      • Farmers' Markets
      • Marina & Waterfront Parks
      • ParkLink Interactive Map
      • Parks & Trails
      • Pools & Aquatics
      • Recreation Centers
      • Sports Leagues & Programs
    • Visit Alexandria

      Information about visiting Alexandria, including shopping, dining, attractions, accommodations, events listings and more. Plan your visit with an itinerary builder, interactive maps, hotel booking, online restaurant reservations and much more.

      • Group Tours
      • Meet in Alexandria
      • Plan Your Visit
      • Trip Planning Assistance
      • Visitor Center
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  • Services

    We are here to serve you. Browse the topics to the right to learn more about the programs and services we offer.

    • Alex311

      Connect with professional and knowledgeable staff for City service and information requests from every City department.

      • Missed Collection
      • Parking
      • Potholes
      • Street Cleaning
      • Trash & Recycling Containers
      • Trees
      • Yard Waste / Bulky Items Pickup
    • Animals

      What you need to know about animals, pets and wildlife in Alexandria.

      • Animal Adoption
      • Animal Control
      • Dog Parks
    • Buildings & Construction

      The City provides services to residents, businesses, contractors, and visitors needing permits for constructions and other developments.

      • Building Codes
      • City Code
      • Code Administration
      • Green Building
      • Land Use & Zoning
      • Permit Center
      • Permits & Land Use Applications
    • Environment

      "Green" initiatives, air quality, noise, water conservation, mosquito and rodent control.

      • Air Quality
      • Clean Waterways
      • Climate Change
      • Eco-City Alexandria
      • Green Building
      • Mosquito Control
      • Noise Control
      • Rodent Control
      • Stormwater Management
    • Jobs
      • City Government Jobs
      • Alexandria City Public Schools
      • Job Search Assistance (Workforce Development Center)
      • Collective Bargaining
    • Maps & GIS

      Geographic Information Systems (GIS) centrally manages, shares and analyzes information about locations through specialized mapping technology. This information increases transparency, improves many City technology applications and provides critical data to decision makers and the public.

      • Interactive Maps
      • Open Data
      • Standard Maps
    • Parks & Recreation

      Alexandria is an active community that offers more than 900 acres of parks and dedicated public space, and a wide variety of neighborhood and recreation centers, pools, dog parks, farmers' markets, waterfront activities and more.

      • Classes & Camps
      • Dog Parks
      • Facility & Park Rentals
      • Farmers' Markets
      • Marina & Waterfront
      • Parks & Trails
      • Pools & Aquatics
      • Recreation Centers
      • Sports Leagues & Programs
    • Property & Housing

      The City administers various housing-related programs and services.

      • Housing Master Plan
      • Landlord & Property Manager Resources
      • Maps & GIS
      • Office of Housing
      • Parcel Viewer
      • Real Estate Assessments
    • Public Health & Wellness

      Alexandria is committed to ensuring our residents thrive through physical, mental, and social health.

      • Aging & Adult Services
      • Emergency Mental Health Services
      • Environmental Health
      • Environmental Quality
      • Health Department
      • Health Clinics
      • Sexual and Domestic Violence Services
      • Substance Abuse Services
      • Teen Pregnancy Prevention
      • Teen Wellness Center
      • Women's Initiatives
    • Public Safety & Courts

      Agencies and programs that help maintain our safety and overall quality of life. These links contain information about the City of Alexandria's law enforcement agencies and public safety organizations, courts and judicial system.

      • Fire Department
      • Police Department
      • Sheriff's Office
      • Circuit Court
      • Clerk of Circuit Court
      • General District Court
      • J&DR Court
      • Court Service Unit
    • Public Works

      Learn more about how the City maintains streets, sidewalks, bridges, and other infrastructure in the City.

      • Bridge Maintenance
      • Paving & Potholes
      • Sewer Maintenance
      • Street Sweeping
    • Real Estate & Taxes

      The City collects car and real estate taxes, maintains tax relief programs and assesses property values. Taxes can be paid in a variety of ways including online, by phone and by mail.

      • Payments
      • Personal Property/Car Tax
      • Real Estate Assessments
      • Real Estate Tax
      • Tax Guide
      • Tax Relief
    • Social Services

      The City provides public assistance as a safety net for individuals and families, including help with homelessness prevention, food, rent, utilities, medical coverage and prescriptions, job training and placement assistance, and much more.

      • Aging & Adult Services
      • Child Care
      • Children & Families
      • Discrimination & Disabilities
      • Gang & Youth Violence Prevention
      • Homeless Services
      • Housing Assistance
      • Human Rights
      • Job Search Assistance (Workforce Development Center)
      • Mentoring Programs
      • Military & Veteran Services
    • Trash & Recycling

      Find information on the City's refuse, recycling and yard waste collection programs.

      • Recycling
      • Refuse Collection
      • Yard Waste
    • Transportation

      Information on how to get to and through the City of Alexandria, including walking, biking, bus, rail, air, ridesharing, and more.

      • Bicycling in Alexandria
      • Bus & Rail
      • King Street Trolley
      • Parking in Alexandria
      • Street Maps
      • Taxis
      • Transportation Planning
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  • Business

    Ideally located just across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C., Alexandria is nationally recognized as one of the best places to live and do business on the east coast. Learn how we can help you start or relocate your business in Alexandria, and access resources for existing businesses and commuters.

    • Business Resources

      The City provides services and resources to help existing businesses expand within the City and promotes recruiting new businesses in Alexandria.

      • Alexandria Economic Development Partnership (AEDP)
      • Alexandria Small Business Development Center (SBDC)
      • BIPOC Small Business Program
      • Doing Business with the City
      • New Business Guide
      • Public-Private Partnerships
    • Jobs

      Alexandria offers wide range of job opportunities and services. Work for City government or City Public Schools, find out about an internship opportunity or learn about workforce development and career training options.

      • City Government Jobs
      • Job Search Assistance (Workforce Development Center)
      • Collective Bargaining
    • Licenses & Permits

      Find out whether a permit is required, the type of permit needed, fees involved, and what requirements are necessary for the activity you want to engage in Alexandria.

      • APEX Permitting & Land Use System
      • Business Licenses
      • Business Outdoor Program & Permits
      • Health Permits
      • Permit Center
      • Zoning Information
    • Real Estate & Taxes

      The City collects car and real estate taxes, maintains tax relief programs and assesses property values. Taxes can be paid in a variety of ways including online, by phone and by mail.

      • Business License Tax
      • Business Personal Property Tax
      • Lodging Tax
      • Meal Tax
      • Payments
      • Real Estate Assessment Search
      • Real Estate Assessments
      • Sales Tax
    • Transportation

      Information on how to get to and through the City of Alexandria, including walking, biking, bus, rail, air, ridesharing, and more.

      • Getting Around
      • Vehicle Registration
      • GO Alex Commuter Resources
      • Parking in Alexandria
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  • Government

    Learn more about Alexandria's accountable, effective, and well-managed government.

    • City Council

      The Alexandria City Council is composed of a Mayor and six Council members who are elected at-large for three-year terms. The Mayor, who is chosen on a separate ballot, presides over meetings of the Council and serves as the ceremonial head of government.

      • City Council Calendar
      • Communicate with City Council
      • Council Assignments
      • Meeting Dockets & Video
      • Speak at a Meeting
    • Boards & Commissions

      The City of Alexandria has a strong commitment to citizen participation as evidenced by the number of citizen boards and commissions established by City Council. These bodies compose a formal system through which citizens can advise City Council on all major issues affecting the City.

      • Meeting Dockets & Video
      • Apply for a Board or Commission
      • Boards & Commission Calendar
      • Boards & Commission Vacancies
      • Board of Architectural Review
      • Board of Zoning Appeals
      • Planning Commission
      • Park & Recreation Commission
      • Transportation Commission
    • Departments & Agencies

      View a list of City departments, offices and other agencies, and learn about their role in the organization.

      • City Government Departments & Offices
      • Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV)
      • Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA)
      • Alexandria City Public Schools (ACPS)
      • Alexandria Economic Development Partnership (AEDP)
      • Alexandria Redevelopment and Housing Authority (ARHA)
      • Alexandria Transit Company (DASH)
      • Animal Welfare League of Alexandria (AWLA)
      • Small Business Development Center (SBDC)
      • Visit Alexandria (Official Tourism Site)
    • Public Safety & Courts

      Information about the City of Alexandria's law enforcement agencies and public safety organizations, courts and judicial system.

      • Police Department
      • Fire Department
      • Sheriff's Office
      • Courts
      • Office of Emergency Management
      • Emergency & Customer Communications
      • Community Policing Review Board
    • Elected Officials

      Alexandria voters elect a Mayor and City Council and three local officers, as well as state and federal representatives.

      • City Council
      • Clerk of Circuit Court
      • Commonwealth's Attorney
      • Sheriff
      • Voting in Alexandria
    • Get Involved

      There are many opportunities to get involved to help better the City of Alexandria. Opportunities include serving on a Board, Commission or Committee, providing input on a new City project or speaking at a City Council meeting.

      • Boards & Commissions
      • City of Alexandria Academy Programs
      • Civic Engagement Policy
      • Speak at a Meeting
      • Volunteering
    • Transparency

      The City government acts with integrity in an open process, and provides timely access to clear, trustworthy information, presented and employed by all parties from the beginning to the end of the process, including the reasoning that leads to and supports the policy conclusion.

      • Operating Budget & Capital Improvement Program
      • Meeting Dockets & Video
      • Performance Analytics
      • Alexandria's Strategic Plan
      • Race & Social Equity
      • Community Policing Review Board
      • Collective Bargaining
      • City Code
      • Open Data
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  • Projects & Plans

    Much of our work involves creating and improving infrastructure and planning for the future. Learn more about major projects and plans here, and how you can get involved!

    • Arts & Culture

      Information about arts, culture and historic projects in the City.

      • Arts & Culture Master Plan
      • Public Art Implementation Plan
    • Development

      Information about commercial and residential development projects in the City.

      • Landmark/Van Dorn Area Planning
      • North Potomac Yard Implementation / Virginia Tech Innovation Campus
      • Potomac River Generating Station Redevelopment
    • Environmental

      Information about environmental and "green" projects in the City.

      • 500 Block N. Pitt St. Sewer Separation Project
      • Flood Action Alexandria
      • Franklin St. Sewer Relocation Project
      • Holmes Run Trail Repairs
      • Lucky Run Stream Restoration
      • Oronoco Outfall Remediation Project
      • Wheeler Ave. Sanitary Sewer Pipe Relining
      • Windmill Hill Park Project - Phase II
    • Neighborhoods

      Information about neighborhood projects in the City.

      • Alexandria West Planning
      • Duke Street and West Taylor Run Project
      • Eisenhower Avenue Metrorail Station Pedestrian Crossing Improvements
      • King-Callahan-Russell Intersection Improvement Project
      • Mount Vernon Avenue North Complete Streets
    • Parks & Recreation

      Information about parks and recreation projects in the City.

      • Beauregard Street Multi-Use Trail Project
      • Bicycle Parking
      • Eugene Simpson Park Renovation Projects
      • Joseph Hensley Park Renovation
      • Old Cameron Run Trail Project
      • Robinson Terminal South Update: Historic Ship Stabilization
    • Public Facilities

      Information about public facilities projects in the City.

      • Alexandria Waterfront
      • King Street-Old Town Metro Access Improvement Project
      • Municipal Broadband
      • Potomac Yard Metrorail Station Project
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      Information about social services projects and plans in the City.

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      Information about transportation projects and plans in and around the City.

      • Adaptive Traffic Signal Control
      • Alexandria Mobility Plan
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      • Potomac Yard Metrorail Station Project
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Archaeological Process

Archaeology is the scientific study of the human past, through excavation and related research. Archaeological projects are conducted in a step-by-step process, much like scientific experiments.
Page updated on November 14, 2022 at 4:56 PM

Alexandria Archaeology

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Selecting the Site

"How do you find an archaeological site?" "How do you know where to dig?" These are questions that archaeologists hear numerous times. In Alexandria, archaeological sites are discovered in a variety of ways. City Archaeologists consult maps, deeds, census, tax and other records. Historic and Native American sites can also be located through field surveys (walking across the ground looking for artifacts). Sometimes sites are discovered by chance by home-owners who find artifacts, building foundations, abandoned wells or privies in basements and backyards. Such discoveries are visited by the City Archaeologists and are recorded with notes and photographs. Information is then added to Alexandria Archaeology's register of sites in the City.

The City of Alexandria has laws that protect archaeological sites so that information may be recovered before they are destroyed by development. Planning dockets and construction applications are reviewed to see if proposed commercial projects could disturb sites. The City archaeologists use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to improve the efficiency and accuracy of the archaeological review process.  Before construction work begins, a developer may be required to have an archaeological investigation conducted. Occasionally, the City Archaeologists choose to work on an important site that is not threatened, or that will be disturbed by small construction projects not covered by the City laws. There are many areas in the Historic Districts such as Del Ray, Rosemont, Northridge, and the West End that have the potential to yield information about Alexandria's historic and prehistoric past. Archaeologists in Alexandria view the entire City as an archaeological site.

How are maps and plats used by archaeologists?

Archaeologist Dr. Benjamin Skolnik chats about the importance of historic spatial information and shares more about how his work using Geographic Information Systems lets us learn more about our City’s buried past.

Conducting Research

Archaeologists rely on written information in their research. The archaeological study of places and time periods for which there is written history is known as historical archaeology.

Primary sources are the original written records from the period of time that is studied by archaeologists and historians and are the best type of written information. A newspaper such as The Alexandria Gazette, first published in 1784, is an excellent source for local history. Deeds, tax records, census records, photographs, diaries and maps are among the best primary sources for learning about the history of Alexandria sites. Secondary sources, such as history books, can be useful if they are accurate as stories or rumors that are loosely based on fact become embellished as they are passed from generation to generation. It is important for archaeologists and historians to distinguish between fact, opinion and legend.

Some notable places in Alexandria where archaeologists and historians conduct research are: the Alexandria Library, Special Collections at 717 Queen Street, which stores books, documents and microfilm on Alexandria and Virginia history; The Alexandria Court House at 520 King Street which holds legal records including deeds and wills, and the City Clerk's Office in City Hall, 301 King Street where City Council Minutes are kept.

What can be learned from old taxes, deeds, and insurance documents?

Archaeologist Dr. Garrett Fesler will chat about the importance of documentary research and how it helps us learn more about our City’s past and interpret its rich archaeological heritage. 

Learn more about Documentary Research and Historical Archaeology.

Excavating the Site

An archaeologist and summer camper record soil color, using a Munsell Color Chart
A summer camper helps a City archaeologist record the measurements and soil information of an excavation unit.

Archaeologists make accurate maps of each site prior to excavation. The archaeologists first draw a base map that indicates where the site is located. During the excavation, the archaeologists add to the map to show which portions of the site were excavated and where features and artifacts were discovered. A datum point, or point of reference from a United States Geological Survey benchmark, is established, and measurements are taken from that point.

A grid is established over the site with string held by large nails or stakes. The grid is based on the cardinal points of the compass (north, south, east and west). Accurate measurements using the grid are taken using surveying equipment. Surveying instruments such as the traditional transit and stadia rod, or modern GPS surveying equipment, are used to produce these accurate maps of the site by measuring distances, angles, heights and depths. The accurate map and grid are necessary to maintain artifact provenience, and to take measurements and map features. Each excavation unit, or square, on the established grid is identified by a set of coordinates. The coordinates are designated by counting the number of units (meters or feet) north and east of the datum point. The datum point is located at the southwest corner of the site. Sometimes, only a few test squares within the site grid will be dug, while on other sites the entire area is excavated. Stratigraphy is the study of the strata, or soil layers, of an archaeological site. The effects of human and natural actions over a long period of time cause visible changes in the color and texture of the soil. The strata may have formed gradually by erosion, gardening activities and littering; or over a shorter period of time through activities such as construction, demolition, trash dumping, or land-filling.

Each stratum (an individual layer of soil and artifacts) is dug separately. Archaeologists start on the top layer and work their way down following the contour of each stratigraphic layer. The layers containing soil, structures and artifacts from different time periods are identified by careful excavation techniques. The archaeologists look for artifacts and any changes in the color and texture of the soil. These changes may indicate the beginning of a new layer.

As each layer is dug, it is measured and recorded on a special form. Artifacts are collected separately from each stratigraphic layer within each square so that their spatial relationship can be recorded. The artifacts are placed in a bag marked with the grid coordinates and the layer number. This exact location where the artifacts are found – the square, layer and feature – is called the provenience. Each provenience is assigned a unique record number, to help keep track of the artifacts.

Each layer represents a segment of time, much like a timeline. Archaeologists also encounter features while they are digging. Features are areas that appear different from the surrounding soil because the ground was disturbed in the past. Features are usually the result of human activity. Some examples of features are building foundations, abandoned wells and privies, trash pits and burials. Usually the lowest layers are the earliest, although features such as wells, foundations and post-holes may have been dug through earlier layers.

Archaeological excavation techniques are tailored to the individual site. In some circumstances, such as in the excavation of some wells, stratigraphic layers cannot be identified by soil color and consistency. When strata are either indistinguishable or very deep, arbitrary levels may be defined by the archaeologist. These arbitrary levels are all equal in depth (e.g., 10 cm. or 1 ft.) and provide a way to record the relative placement of artifacts within a larger layer or feature.

Archaeologists must be observant and aware of post-depositional factors, conditions that have occurred after the artifacts were deposited on the site. Seasonal weather changes, roots, worm and rodent activities can alter the placement or preservation of the artifacts. The very actions that can create a site, such as those noted above, may also affect the artifacts and features at a later time.

The basic tool for digging is the masons pointing trowel; the same type of trowel bricklayers, or masons, use. Trowels between three and five inches are most effective. Archaeologists use the trowel to scrape the soil carefully and evenly, while uncovering artifacts and looking for changes in soil color and texture which may indicate a feature or the beginning of a new level. The Munsell Color Chart provides standard names for the soil colors. Smaller tools such as dental picks and paint brushes are used for very fine work. Once soil has been scraped with the trowel into a dustpan, it is placed in a bucket and then sifted through a screen to ensure that no artifacts remain in it. The artifacts from each provenience are placed in separate labeled bags and brought to the Museum for processing.

A line level and plumb bob are used for mapping and drawing profiles of the stratigraphy seen on the side-wall of an excavation unit. Standardized record forms ensure that the same types of data are collected from every part of the site.

Cleaning and Cataloguing Artifacts

Archaeological Process: Cleaning and Cataloging artifacts in the lab
Volunteers wash artifacts from the Lee Street Site (44AX180).

Excavation is only a small part of an archaeologist's work. After excavation, the job of cleaning, analyzing and interpreting begins. In urban archaeology, it is estimated that for every hour of excavation it takes at least twenty hours of laboratory and other work to complete an analysis and report. Often this study and analysis continues for years after the excavation has been completed.

Although the discovery of artifacts is exciting, it is important to remember that the archaeologist is not just looking for individual objects. As strange as it may seem, one or two spectacular artifacts may not be regarded as any more "valuable" than the other hundreds or thousands of objects uncovered during the excavation. Interesting artifacts are frequently displayed in exhibitions to provide information and insight into the culture the archaeologist is studying. The artifacts, however, are not regarded as antiques and given a monetary value. The value is what the entire collection or assemblage can tell the archaeologist about the site and the events that happened there through time. The thousands of artifacts recovered from each site are washed, sorted and marked by volunteers. Each artifact is then catalogued and analyzed with others found in the same context.

Cleaning Artifacts: Artifacts arrive in the Alexandria Archaeology Laboratory from the sites in bags and boxes labeled according to the provenience, the specific location where an artifact or feature is found in the ground. Ceramics, glass and bones in good condition are washed with a toothbrush in a basin of plain water, as detergents can cause chemical reactions that damage the artifacts. Artifacts are then placed in a drying rack for at least 24 hours to insure that the artifacts are completely dry before they are stored in plastic bags. Some types of artifacts may be treated differently. For example, metals may be cleaned with a soft, dry brush to remove surface dirt, and stored in a dry environment prior to conservation. Waterlogged wood, leather and cloth artifacts are sprayed with fungicide and placed in sealed plastic bags on site until they are brought to the lab. They are then cleaned with a gentle water spray and stored in water prior to conservation. Once cleaned, it is important to keep all materials from each unit and level together until marked with the provenience.

Archaeological Conservation: The main goal of archaeological conservation is to stabilize artifacts for long-term preservation. Depending on the condition of the artifact, this can involve chemical treatments, mechanical cleaning, or simply storage in the proper environment.

Sorting and Marking Artifacts: When dry, the artifacts are sorted within each provenience into categories such as ceramics, glass, structural material (window glass, nails), miscellaneous (buttons, pipes, toys), organic artifacts (cloth and leather), bone, shell and seeds.

All ceramic and glass vessel fragments are marked with a special waterproof ink pen with the site and provenience numbers. Artifact assemblages (all artifacts from the same provenience) are studied together, therefore it is important that each artifact is always marked or accompanied by a label.

Crossmending Ceramics and Glass: Crossmending is the process of piecing sherds together to form a vessel, regardless of where the artifact fragments were found on the site. This is usually done with fragments found in a large feature, such as a well or trash pit. The crossmended vessels are held together temporarily with tape to reveal the shape and size, and for photography. Artifacts are only restored with glue if they are to be exhibited, as restored vessels require more storage space and are subject to breakage. This process is like doing many three-dimensional jigsaw puzzles at the same time, and requires good spatial skills, persistence, and an eye for detail. Fragments of each crossmended vessel are bagged separately and given an individual catalogue number.

Cataloguing: Cataloguing is the most difficult part of laboratory work. Alexandria Archaeology uses an illustrated glossary put together for in-house use, study collections, an extensive library of books, and the internet for aid in artifact identification. The staff and volunteers refer to a notebook of standardized terms to be used in cataloguing artifacts, to provide consistency and accuracy.

Each artifact or each group of artifacts with the same description (e.g., five sherds of plain creamware body sherds; two bone 4-hole buttons with the same measurements; 50 fragments of window lass) are assigned a catalogue number, and described on a catalogue sheet. The information is entered into a computer database, along with digital images of the artifacts. The database can then be used to manipulate the artifact catalogue to analyze the site.

Faunal Analysis: Faunal analysis, the study of animal bones, is also an important area of study in the lab. Faunal studies can tell us about the diets, types of livestock, socioeconomic status of the people, butchering practices, foodways, as well as the economy of the period. Faunal analysis requires a lot of specialized knowledge, and is normally done by consultants.

Analysis and Interpretation: One aspect of interpretation is to determine the period or periods of time that the site was occupied. After the ceramics, glass and miscellaneous artifacts are identified and catalogued, artifact groups from each provenience are studied as a unit. These artifacts provide the archaeologist with a point to begin their study of the site. Manufactured products are very useful because their date and place of manufacture can often be identified according to advances in technology and changes in stylistic preferences. Archaeologists must then estimate when the artifacts were discarded. This is known as the date of deposition. This can be a specific point in time or a span of many years, decades or even centuries. The concept of terminus post quem, Latin for 'the date after which', is used to determine the date of deposition, such as when a layer of trash was dumped into a pit or abandoned well. All of the artifacts found together in one level had to have been put there after the date that the newest artifact was manufactured. The date when this most recent artifact was first manufactured is known as the terminus post quem.

Stratigraphy, the study of the layers of the earth that contain artifacts is a relative dating techniques which tell us the order in which things occurred, but not the exact date something happened. Seriation, a graphical comparison of a series of artifact assemblages that have been put in chronological order based on their similarities, is often used when stratigraphy is lacking, such as in surface collections. The sequence of events on the site is determined by analyzing the various types of artifacts recovered from the site.

Absolute dating techniques using scientific methods, such as Radiocarbon (Carbon 14) or Potassium-Argon, are not used on American historic sites, but can be very useful for prehistoric sites. These techniques are expensive, are only used on organic material (ceramics and glass are non-organic), and have a margin of error that can be as much as plus or minus 250 - 500 years. Because manufacturing information and dated samples of artifacts are available for the historic period, these absolute dating techniques are not necessary.

Collection Storage: The Alexandria Archaeology Museum stores collections and related field records, catalogues and other supporting documentation from most excavations within the Alexandria city limits – whether the sites were excavated by staff or by archaeological resource management firms. The artifacts are stored in appropriate bags, boxes and other storage materials, and in a storage facility with a stabile climate, in order to ensure their long-term preservation. A database helps track the location of the artifacts, as well as their catalogue descriptions.

What happens to archaeological materials once they’ve been excavated?

Go behind the scenes with archaeologist and collections manager Tatiana Niculescu to look at the City’s efforts to preserve, research, and exhibit artifacts both big and small.

Reporting the Results

Public outreach during excavations of ships at the Robinson Terminal South Site (44AX235).
Public outreach during excavations of ships at the Robinson Terminal South Site (44AX235). 

The interpretation of the data gathered from the excavation is an ongoing and lengthy process, but cannot be overlooked. There is no point to digging and analyzing the artifacts unless you are prepared to find out what all of the information means. Ultimately, interpretation takes the form of publications such as site reports and books, as well as lectures or exhibitions.

For archaeologists in Alexandria, the interpretation of each site adds to our knowledge of the growth and development of the City. It also provides a clearer understanding of how we arrived at our current state and the possibilities for our future.

Site reports, journal articles, book chapters, theses and papers on archaeology in Alexandria are listed in an online Alexandria Archaeology Bibliography. A number of the reports and publications can be read online, and some can be ordered from the Historic Alexandria Museum Shop.

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